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172 THE ISA HANDBOOK IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY

‘creation’) might signal a positivist orienta- hegemony in creative ways (Fiske, 1993).
tion or refer to Pierre Bourdieu’s complex Studies of art forms associated with popular
notions about the ‘field of cultural produc- culture (like graffiti or country music) some-
tion’ or to Richard Peterson’s ‘production of times focus on how these forms of artistic
culture’ perspective. expression express resistance and create new
Several prominent approaches engage genres. However, many art forms now asso-
with notions related to conflict, competition ciated with ‘high culture’ and elites, like
and cooperation in distinctive ways. Let us opera or Shakespearean theatre, once catered
consider the place of conflict and collabora- to ‘low-brow’ audiences (DiMaggio, 1991;
tion in selected perspectives that have Levine, 1980). Popular and outsider art forms
marked sociological research on the arts and have served as resources for artistic avant-
informed emerging new perspectives, among gardes and inspired social movements.
them: Marxist and neo-Marxist approaches, Nonetheless, the appropriation of styles and
symbolic interactionism, neo-structuralism content associated with marginalized groups
and the ‘production of culture approach’. does not necessarily signal democratization of
the arts (Marcus, 1998; Michaels, 1993 [1987]).
Western high culture institutions and art mar-
Conflict as a basis for social action kets continue to marginalize many ‘minority’
artists (such as women and non-white males)
and Marxist approaches
and their work (Trajtenberg, 2003).
Approaches that emphasize conflict as a core Relations between artistic genres and taste
element in social processes related to are frequently examined from the perspective
research on the arts and culture were popular of conflict theory, however early critical the-
with sociologists in Latin America, French- orists often failed to take into account the
speaking Canada, Britain, France and else- specificity of aesthetic content and tended
where in Europe during the twentieth not to test their theories with systematic
century, but have been less important in observation. Sociologists of the arts have
English-speaking North American scholar- generally moved towards a more nuanced
ship interested in the arts (Wolff, 1981). understanding of art–society relations with a
Seminal early work by Marxist sociologists greater emphasis on empirical testing (Lee
such as Theodor Adorno, Antonio Gramsci and Peterson, 2004; Lena, 2004).
and Lucien Goldmann conducted during the Nonetheless, the legacy of conflict theory
middle of the twentieth century continues to persists, even in non-Marxist perspectives.
fuel debates about the place of class-based Marxist aesthetics combined with insights
tastes and aesthetic practices in processes of from psychology and semiotics have con-
domination and resistance. Adorno (1962) tributed to new ways of considering ‘substan-
suggested that certain art forms and practices tive content’ (i.e., aesthetic and symbolic
associated with them stimulate cognitive characteristics of artworks) by examining
process and enhance critical thinking works as ‘texts’ or codes. Moreover, art
(i.e., classical music in the Western traditions world participants may ‘use’ the arts in
he admired) whereas American culture diverse manners that are not necessarily in
industries promoted art forms (like popular conflict, even though the uses are different
music broadcast on radio stations) that can (Marontate, 2004a, 2004b). In this connec-
induce passivity or states of consciousness tion scholars have revisited Adorno’s com-
that are detrimental to society and human plex oeuvre (DeNora, 2003; Witkin, 1998,
consciousness. Others disagree with this neg- 2002). DeNora’s approach integrates the
ative assessment of the place of popular art interplay of the qualities of music, con-
forms in social life, contending that artistic sciousness and agency in studies of how
phenomena catering to working class values people engage with music in everyday life,
or ‘low brow’ tastes can challenge elitist passively and actively, in ways that make