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Chapter 16 • Small-Scale PV Systems Used in Domestic Applications 349

FIGURE 16.13 Three categories of failures of PV modules during its life-time [5].

shows the distribution of failure types of a PV module at the start of its working life. Note
that infant-mortality failures occur in the beginning of the working life of a PV module
which are primarily related to flaws in PV modules during manufacturing, and are associ-
ated with incorrect transportation and handling.

16.6 Conclusions

Since small-scale domestic applications accommodate two major components, PV modules
and power electronic converters, this chapter has discussed major issues related to both. The
possible PV system topologies were provided in block diagram forms to highlight their com-
mon and unique features as they are connected to a local grid or operated stand-alone.
The requirement of a converter between a PV cell and a load has been explained by
utilizing the characteristics of PV cells and modules, which has also been linked to the
potential degradation of power output due to faults and failures at cell and module level.
Due to the large-scale penetration of grid-tied inverters, electrical requirements of PV
inverters have been discussed from the standards’ viewpoint. Some insights were provid-
ed about the problems faced and future directions of the grid-tied inverters. Commonly
used inverter-topologies were classified and their common features and critical compo-
nents are explained. In addition, the basic application circuits of two emerging converter
topologies were given.
In the final section of this chapter, the issues and faults were classified and explained.
Furthermore, the chapter summarizes the distribution of failure types of a PV module at
the start of its working life which aims to highlight the practical aspects of this renewable
energy source.