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CHAPTE R 3 Ethics, Fraud, and Internal Control 115

software, its ease of dissemination, and the possibility of exact replication. Does software fit with the cur-
rent categories and conventions regarding ownership?
Equity in Access
Some barriers to access are intrinsic to the technology of information systems, but some are avoidable
through careful system design. Several factors, some of which are not unique to information systems, can
limit access to computing technology. The economic status of the individual or the affluence of an organi-
zation will determine the ability to obtain information technology. Culture also limits access, for example,
when documentation is prepared in only one language or is poorly translated. Safety features, or the lack
thereof, have limited access to pregnant women, for example. How can hardware and software be
designed with consideration for differences in physical and cognitive skills? What is the cost of providing
equity in access? For what groups of society should equity in access become a priority?
Environmental Issues
Computers with high-speed printers allow for the production of printed documents faster than ever
before. It is probably easier just to print a document than to consider whether it should be printed and
how many copies really need to be made. It may be more efficient or more comforting to have a hard
copy in addition to the electronic version. However, paper comes from trees, a precious natural resource,
and ends up in landfills if not properly recycled. Should organizations limit nonessential hard copies?
Can nonessential be defined? Who can and should define it? Should proper recycling be required? How
can it be enforced?
Artificial Intelligence
A new set of social and ethical issues has arisen out of the popularity of expert systems. Because of the
way these systems have been marketed—that is, as decision makers or replacements for experts—some
people rely on them significantly. Therefore, both knowledge engineers (those who write the programs)
and domain experts (those who provide the knowledge about the task being automated) must be con-
cerned about their responsibility for faulty decisions, incomplete or inaccurate knowledge bases, and the
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role given to computers in the decision-making process. Further, because expert systems attempt to clone
a manager’s decision-making style, an individual’s prejudices may implicitly or explicitly be included in
the knowledge base. Some of the questions that need to be explored are: Who is responsible for the com-
pleteness and appropriateness of the knowledge base? Who is responsible for a decision made by an
expert system that causes harm when implemented? Who owns the expertise once it is coded into a
knowledge base?

Unemployment and Displacement
Many jobs have been and are being changed as a result of the availability of computer technology. People
unable or unprepared to change are displaced. Should employers be responsible for retraining workers
who are displaced as a result of the computerization of their functions?
Misuse of Computers

Computers can be misused in many ways. Copying proprietary software, using a company’s computer
for personal benefit, and snooping through other people’s files are just a few obvious examples. 9
Although copying proprietary software (except to make a personal backup copy) is clearly illegal, it is
commonly done. Why do people think that it is not necessary to obey this law? Are there any good argu-
ments for trying to change this law? What harm is done to the software developer when people make
unauthorized copies? A computer is not an item that deteriorates with use, so is there any harm to the
employer if it is used for an employee’s personal benefit? Does it matter if the computer is used during

8 R. Dejoie, G. Fowler, and D. Paradice (eds.), Ethical Issues in Information Systems (Boston: Boyd & Fraser, 1991).
9 K. A. Forcht, ‘‘Assessing the Ethic Standards and Policies in Computer-Based Environments,’’ in R. Dejoie, G. Fowler, and
D. Paradice (eds.), Ethical Issues in Information Systems (Boston: Boyd & Fraser, 1991).