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More telling, the U.S. response to those attacks, espe- Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2000). Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-
cially its invasion of Iraq, led to the most serious attack versity Press.
Johnson, C. (2004). The sorrows of empire: Militarism, secrecy, and the
on the imperial position of the United States in a half- end of the republic. New York: Metropolitan Books.
century. The George W. Bush administration’s war LaFeber, W. (1963). The new empire: An interpretation of American
expansion, 1860–1898. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
against Iraq, conducted largely unilaterally, undermined
LaFeber,W. (1999). Michael Jordan and the new global capitalism. New
U.S. prestige, worsened strains in the U.S. relationship York: W.W. Norton.
with critical European allies, fueled anti-Americanism Magdoff, H. (1969). The age of imperialism:The economics of U.S. foreign
policy. New York: Monthly Review Press.
abroad to new heights, and led to a bloody occupation Parenti, M. (1995). Against empire. San Francisco: City Light Books.
in Iraq. The Bush administration, it seems, had aban- Rosenberg, E. (1999). Financial missionaries to the world:The politics and
culture of dollar diplomacy, 1900–1930. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
doned the liberal globalizing mission that has defined the
University Press.
American empire and was returning to older forms of Said, E. (1994). Culture and imperialism. New York: Vintage Books.
unilateral imperium (supreme power), not dissimilar to Williams,W.A. (1969). The roots of the modern American empire:A study
of the growth and shaping of social consciousness in a marketplace soci-
the nineteenth-century European way. Coupled with the ety. New York: Random House.
attack on globalization, the problems attendant on poli- Williams, W. A. (Ed.). (1972). From colony to empire: Essays in the his-
tory of American foreign relations. New York: J.Wiley.
cies in the Middle East, not only with Iraq but also with
Williams, W. A. (1972). The tragedy of American diplomacy. New York:
U.S. support of Israel, could well weaken the U.S. posi- Dell.
tion in the world, perhaps to depths not seen since the Williams, W. A. (1980). Empire as a way of life: An essay on the causes
and character of America’s present predicament, along with a few
earlier stages of the twentieth century. thoughts about an alternative. New York: Oxford University Press.
In just a little more than a century the United States
emerged as a global power, reached commanding heights
of power and wealth, had an incredible ability to create
a liberal, imperial world, and has seen its positions criti-
cized and attacked. At the outset of a new century, how- Andean States
ever, new challenges—and new limits—face the American
empire, and new strategies will be required to address this state can be defined as a regionally organized polity
new world. Athat contains a hierarchical and centralized political
structure that maintains social stratification and coordi-
Robert Buzzanco
nates human efforts. Unlike civilizations in many other
See also Globalization; Modernity; Postmodernism; regions of the world, the civilization in the Andes had no
Revolution—United States; Western Civilization system of writing prior to the Spanish conquest in the
1530s. Therefore, there are only eyewitness accounts of
the last Andean state, the Inca empire. The Incas, how-
Further Reading ever, were the culmination of a process of state develop-
Bacevich, A. J. (2002). American empire: The realities and consequences ment that began more than 4,000 years earlier. Our
of U.S. diplomacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. understanding of earlier states of the Andes must be
Buhle, P., & Rice-Maximin, E. (1995). William Appleman Williams: The
tragedy of empire. New York: Routledge. gleaned almost exclusively from the archaeological
Buzzanco, R. (1999). What happened to the new left: Toward a radical record.This reliance on the artifacts and sites left behind
reading of U.S. foreign relations. Diplomatic History, 23, 575–607. unfortunately creates interpretation problems for schol-
Chomsky, N. (2003). Hegemony or survival:America’s quest for full spec-
trum dominance. New York: Metropolitan Books. ars.The “footprint” of a state can look very similar to the
Ferguson, N. (2004). Colossus:The price of America’s empire. New York: “footprint” of a chiefdom; the nuances of a state’s ideol-
Penguin Press.
Greider,W. (1997). One world, ready or not:The manic logic of global cap- ogy and economic system can be difficult to understand
italism. New York: Simon & Schuster. from collections of pots and rocks. Nonetheless, a tenta-