Page 235 - Encyclopedia Of World History Vol V

2012 berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Foraging Era fare. The concept of militia (temporary service as a war-
(c. 100,000–12,000 BCE) rior on behalf of the group) was the norm. Written
During the foraging era human groups were nomadic, descriptions of warfare first emerged in Neolithic
moving to resources.The major form of land warfare con- Mesopotamia.
sisted of nomadic bands fighting over land resources such In the Americas,Africa, and the Pacific, limited archae-
as food, water, or shelter. The only identifiable pattern ological evidence suggests that similar forms and patterns
involved adaptation of hunting weapons and tactics to of land warfare developed along foraging and Neolithic
warfare. Bows, spears, slings, and clubs were combined forms of warfare. Permanent settlements led to Neolithic
with reconnaissance, encirclement, stealth, and even forms, whereas nomadic areas continued foraging forms.
retreat. Competition between Cro-Magnon and Nean- For instance, Australian Aboriginal bands continued the
derthal groups around the Mediterranean is an example. foraging era model of land warfare associated with
Rock art in Spain and South Africa depicts rival bow- nomads for more than 100,000 years, well into the
hunting groups engaged in conflict. Participants were modern period.
likely “generalists” who performed many tasks for band
survival, including organized conflict. From these simple Ancient Period
origins, war developed into a complex set of beliefs, prac- (c. 5000–1000 BCE)
tices, and institutions in most cultures and civilizations in Two major forms of land warfare developed during the
world history. ancient period. Large, sedentary civilizations spawned the
first infantry armies, whereas migrating, nomadic tribes
Neolithic Era used mobility in the form of foot and horse warfare, first
(c. 12,000–5000 BCE) as chariots and carts, then as cavalry. All of the basics of
Human bands settled permanently in a variety of inland land warfare—battles, sieges, campaigns, and wars—
and coastal villages across the globe by the end of the last were in place, and the nomad-settler dynamic drove land
ice age.The major form of warfare changed from simple warfare advancement until the modern period.
foraging era skirmishes to Neolithic era pitched battles, Major technological advancements drove patterns of
sieges, and campaigns, according to evidence from the land warfare during this period: seafaring, metallurgy,
ancient Near East and Europe. People developed the first animal transport (namely the horse), and long-range
war weapons, armor, hierarchical societies, and architec- weapons (compound bows). Seafaring and the horse
tural defenses. Patterns of nomad versus settlement and changed the nature of war transport and carried chariots
settlement versus settlement emerged in land warfare. and later cavalry to preeminence in open battlefields.
These patterns remained constant in land warfare into the Metallurgy of copper and bronze weapons such as dag-
modern period.Village populations filled in arable (fit for gers, swords, and arrow tips, along with armor and
growing crops) lands, and flora and fauna were domes- tools, changed lethality rates and even fortification
ticated to feed the increasing populations.Towns such as designs. Warfare became expensive, complex, institu-
Catalhuyuk in Turkey and Jericho in Palestine emerged tionalized, and enculturated as a tool of state and tribal
with walls, as did city-states at Ur and Erech in Sumer. power with the ability to affect economics, social struc-
Town specialists became potters, weapon makers, farm- ture, and world history.
ers, warriors, or leaders, whereas those people who Written descriptions of war during this period come
remained nomads domesticated animals and became from Egypt, China, Europe, India, and Mesopotamia.
pastoralists. Cemetery burials in Neolithic Egypt point to These descriptions are supported by state and tribal art
death by warfare. Death rates were often moderate, but as well as archaeological evidence, leaving no doubt as to
participation rates were high in sedentary, Neolithic war- the importance of land warfare in ancient world history.