Page 238 - Encyclopedia Of World History Vol V

warfare, land 2015

the Confucian Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) to keep North America occupied during pre-Columbian times by
out horse nomads such as the Xiongnu. Advanced peoples with shared cultural features) by emphasizing
weapons, well-equipped, paid, trained garrison armies, “star wars.” These astronomy-timed wars used volley-fire
huge orders of iron weapons and armor, and the constant darts from spearthrowers to eliminate rival dynasties
stress of nomadic horsemen all characterized Chinese and gain control of other city-states. Teotihuacan con-
classical warfare. trolled even Mayan city-states such as Kaminaljuyu by
In the Mediterranean area land and sea warfare 500 CE. The influence on Mayan warfare was profound
clashed. Rome, the land power, encountered Carthage, the as leaders such as Smoking Frog transformed the role of
sea power, in the Punic Wars. Rome used land techniques land warfare and Mayan city-state power. Mayan cities
to capture the Carthage navy intact, whereas Carthage such as Tikal, Calakmul, and Dos Pilas soon adopted the
land forces (including war elephants) invaded Italy and more warlike approach and extended their power as well.
were undefeated for ten years under the general Hannibal
until Battle of Zama in 202 BCE. Naval battles remained Medieval Period
extensions of land warfare, with boarding and ramming (c. 500–1500 CE)
the norm, as at Actium in Greece in 31 BCE. Roman Medieval land warfare was similar to that of the ancient
power after the Punic Wars centered on both sea power world with the nomad-sedentary dynamic, religious
and on infantry legions, especially as engineers. In 390 CE, motivations, and small professional armies supple-
as power shifted from Rome to Constantinople (modern mented with mercenaries, conscripts, and militias when
Istanbul,Turkey) with the rise of Christianity and Attila’s needed. Religion influenced war with the rise of Bud-
Huns, the Roman writer Vegetius wrote De Re Militari dhism, Christianity, and Islam in Eurasia and the spread
(Things Military), a comprehensive planning approach to of religious centers such as Tiahuanaco in South Amer-
campaign operations, for Emperor Valentinian II. ica and Cahokia in North America. Buddhism and its
In Africa the kingdom of Meroë used an iron industry warrior monks spread the formerly peaceful religion
to fuel its expansion along the Nile River into Egypt by throughout Asia during the medieval period. Islam was
1000 BCE. Between 50 and 650 CE the Aksum state spread by Arabian Peninsula groups, partly by war, dur-
developed in coastal Ethiopia, controlling trade with ing the seventh through tenth centuries CE, whereas
military force. Christianity emerged earlier, during the first through
In the Americas the Chavin, Olmec, and Adena- fourth centuries CE as the major force in the Roman and
Hopewell cultures emerged by 1000 BCE but displayed Byzantine worlds. Classical empires collapsed into core
more religious than military tendencies. By 500 BCE, centers of religion and trade such as Constantinople,
however, signs of land warfare appeared at Mesoameri- Teotihuacan, Tombouktu, Chang’an, Angkor, and
can Olmec and Mayan sites such as Tres Zapotes and El Aachen. Because classical-size military forces could no
Mirador. Slings, spearthrowers, stone blades, and elite longer be mustered and sustained, small, professional
warrior costumes were associated with captive taking and armies were coupled with religiously motivated con-
trading. In coastal Peru the classic Moche (0–550 CE) scripts in times of war.The Aztec and Arabic expansions,
exhibited warrior cults, captive sacrifice, complex arms Christian Crusades, and samurai Japan are examples.
and armor assemblages, defensive valley walls, and bat- Although sedentary empires such as the Byzantine,
tle art showing conflict with highland cultures. In high- Tang, Wagadu, and Khmer existed in name, in reality
land Mexico the city-state of Teotihuacan (100–650 CE) nomads built the greatest medieval empires. Nomadic
grew to 100,000 people after a volcanic eruption less- migrations and conquests by the Vandals, Bedouins,
ened its rival, Cholula.Teotihuacan revolutionized Stone Mongols, and Aztecs are notable examples. Great seden-
Age warfare in Mesoamerica (the region of southern tary war leaders such as the Frankish king Charlemagne