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Journalistic Codes of Ethics in Europe 201

German, Luxembourg and Turkish) having a greater number of principles stressing
accountability to the public and sources than average. As for the codes adopted
by journalists themselves, and by publishers and journalists together, there is no
or only limited connection between the contents of the code and its adopting
body. Explanations for the differences between the national codes must thus be
looked for elsewhere, for instance in the state and status of journalism, and in the
social, cultural and political factors of the given societies.

Towards more responsible codes?

The codes seem to have changed somewhat in the course of time. This is
revealed when 13 of the code texts are compared to their earlier versions accord-
ing to a comparative study on the Conference of Security and Cooperation in
Europe (CSCE) countries’ ethical codes made by Pauli Juusela (1991).
In most of the cases, the number of principles has increased. The principles
that have increased the most are those banning bribes or any outside influence
on journalistic work, and the principles stressing copyright. Also the demands
for the right to reply, presumption of innocence and prohibition of praising/
inciting violence have clearly increased in the codes of the 13 countries. Principles
protecting the professional integrity of journalists (function 5) and showing
accountability to the public (function 1) have increased the most. The fact that
the principles stressing bribes and other outside influences have increased is
understandable, taking the growing media concentration and commercialization
into consideration. The increased significance of the right to reply, the presump-
tion of innocence and the principles fighting violence might refer to the sensa-
tionalism, or, together with copyright, also to the internationalization and the
ethical problems caused by new technologies.
Only a few principles have disappeared from the 13 codes. Types of principles
that have decreased are those calling for contribution to peace and professional
secrecy, stressing accountability to the public (function 1), to the sources and
referents (function 2), and protecting journalists’ professional integrity (function 5).
According to Hifzi Topuz (1989), the tendency of the ethical principles has
been towards more responsibility and international understanding.

We witness the birth of a new generation of ethical principles. It is no longer
the matter of a mere defining of classical principles such as objectivity, truth-
fulness, ban of plagiarism ... but of the principles aimed at contributing to
the development of human rights, securing the respect for a variety of cul-
tures, philosophical and ideological convictions, defending peace and secu-
rity, avoiding aggression and war propaganda ..., and contributing towards
international understanding. (Topuz, 1989: 267)

Kaarle Nordenstreng has also had similar visions about ‘internationalizing codes
of ethics (see Nordenstreng, 1992: 190–2). Their thoughts get some – though
rather weak – support on the basis of the 13 European codes studied.