Page 30 - Communication and the Evolution of Society

7 What Is Universal Pragmatics?

done in linguistic behaviorism;® or (2) if it is pre-established
at the analytic level that there exists a common code and store of
signs between sender and receiver, as is done in information
theory.
In addition to empiricist approaches that issue, in one way or
another, from the semiotics of Morris, there are interesting ap-
proaches to the formal analysis of general structures of speech
and action. The following analyses can be understood as contribu-
tions along the way to a universal pragmatics. Bar Hillel pointed
out quite early the necessity for a pragmatic extension of logical
semantics.® Also of note are the proposals for a deontic logic
(Hare, H. von Wright, N. Rescher)!® and corresponding ar-
tempts at a formalization of such speech acts as commands and
questions (Apostel);31 approaches to a logic of nondeductive
argumentation (Toulmin, Botha) belong here as well.‘? From
the side of Jinguzstzcs, the investigation of presuppositions (Kiefer,
Pet6fi) ,’* conversational postulates (Grice, Lakoff) ,** speech acts
(Ross, McCawley, Wunderlich) ,2° and dialogues and texts (Fill-
more, Posner) '* lead to a consideration of the pragmatic dimension
of language from a reconstructionist point of view. The difficulties
in semantic theory (Katz, Lyons) point in the same direction.‘
From the side of formal semantics, the discussion—going back to
Frege and Russell—of the structure of propositions, of referential
terms and predicates (Strawson)?* is particularly significant for a
universal pragmatics. The same holds for analytic action theory
(Danto, Hampshire, Schwayder)1® and for the discussion that has
arisen in connection with the logic of the explanation of intentional
action (Winch, Taylor, von Wright) .?° The use theory of meaning
introduced by Wittgenstein has universal-pragmatic aspects (Al-
ston) ,?' as does the attempt by Grice to trace meaning back to
the intentions of the speaker (Bennett, Schiffer) .?? I shall draw
primarily on the theory of speech acts initiated by Austin (Searle,
Wunderlich) ,”* which I take to be the most promising point of
departure for a universal pragmatics.
These approaches developed from logic, linguistics, and the
analytic philosophy of language have the common goal of clarify-
ing processes of language use from the viewpoint of formal
analysis. If one evaluates them with regard to the contribution