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10 Ibid., esp. pp. 68-70. On p. 80, Schiller writes that 'Each new electronic
development widens the perimeter of American influence, and the indi-
visibility of military and commercial activity operates to promote even
greater expansion.' Exceptions to this apparently unproblematic per-
spective include the work of Vincent Mosco, 'Who Makes US Govern-
ment Policy in World Communications?' Journal of Communication, 29
(1) (Winter 1979) 158--64.
II Representative examples can be found in Jorg Becker, Goran Hedebro
and Leena Paldan (eds) Communication and Domination, Essays in
Honor of Herbert I. Schiller (Norwood: Ablex, 1986).
12 A comprehensive critique on the purported effects of cultural imperialism
bas been produced by John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism, A Critical
Introduction (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991).
13 Ibid., p. 7.
14 The term 'media imperialism' bas been used, sometimes interchangeably
with 'cultural imperialism.' The former is often used by liberal or non-
'critical' writers. A core reason for this is that the broader context of
domination informing the Marxist or more critical scholar, and the role
of the mass media in this more holistic conceptualization, is not
accepted a priori. Moreover, empirical efforts to quantify mass media
penetration constitutes a far more straightforward proposition than
attempts to evaluate the quantitative and qualitative implications of a
complex of 'cultural' domination. See Chin-Chuan Lee, Media Imperi-
alism Reconsidered (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979).
15 An 'invasion' of consumerist practices and values is often portrayed in the
context of an external force disrupting the cultural harmony present in a
previously unsullied society. The MacBride Commission report and other
NWICO studies reflects this kind of cultural protectionism based on the
assumed 'naturalness' ot righteousness of existing nation states as cultural
entitities. For a critique of this 'invasion' approach, see Tomlinson, Cul-
tural Imperialism, esp. pp. 23-4, and David Morley, 'Where the Global
Meets the Local: Notes from the Sitting-Room', in Morley, Television,
Audiences and Cultural Studies (London, Routledge, 1992) cb.l3.
16 Edward A. Comor, 'Introduction', in Comor (ed.), The Global Political
Economy of Communication: Hegemony, Telecommunication and the
Information Economy (London and New York: Macmillan and St Mar-
tin's Press, 1994) esp. pp. 6-10.
17 Robert W. Cox, 'Multilateralism and the World Order', in Cox (with
Timothy J. Sinclair), Approaches to World Order (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1996) p. 517.
18 Stephen Gill, American Hegemony and the Trilateral Commission (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 118.
19 Cox, ' 'Multilateralism and the World Order', pp. 517-18.
20 In relation to the individual, the term 'culture' is used in the following
pages to mean 'a general state or habit of the mind,' while for a
community it will be used in references to 'the whole way of life,
material, intellectual, and spiritual': Raymond Williams, 'Culture and
Civilization', in Paul Edwards (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan and The Free Press, 1967) p. 273.