Page 201 - Contemporary Political Sociology Globalization Politics and Power

Citizenship 187

understanding of citizenship rights. First, there is the issue of who should
be included as a citizen. Environmentalists argue that future generations
should be included as having citizenship rights. In some ways, this is not
as controversial a proposal as it might initially seem. To some extent, the
rights of future citizens who are now children are already considered:
rights to education, for example. Furthermore, there is the expectation
that citizenship will be awarded to those as yet unborn insofar as the
relevant conditions are expected to continue in much the same way. The
Norwegian Constitution seems to have formalized such an expectation in
relation to the environment in an amendment which states that:

Every person has the right to an environment that is conducive to health
and to natural surroundings whose productivity and diversity are preserved.
Natural resources should be used on the basis of comprehensive long - term
considerations whereby this right will be safeguarded for future generations
as well. (quoted in Christoff, 1996 : 165)

More controversially, animal rights activists argue that rights should be
extended to animals, on the grounds that they, too, suffer, and also that
they have moral value equal to that of human beings (Van Steenbergen,
1994 ). There are obvious difficulties with this argument, however, since

animals, unlike humans, will never be able to exercise citizenship rights
on their own behalf, nor respect the rights of other citizens, nor carry out
the duties expected of citizens. It, therefore, seems more reasonable to
think of the protection of animals and other non - human species as a
matter of responsibility on the part of citizens, rather than as a matter of
citizens ’ rights.
Second, environmental citizenship is often seen in terms of responsibil-
ity for nature, or “ environmental stewardship ” as it is sometimes called.
This emphasis on responsibility rather than rights marks a difference, and

perhaps potential for conflict, between environmentalism and other social
movements. The idea of citizenship responsibility is not new; in fact, it
has always been intrinsic to the enjoyment of citizenship rights. For
example, the right to vote implies also the responsibility to elect political
leaders, and in some countries, citizens are legally required to participate
in local and general elections. More minimally, obligations to pay taxes
and to obey the law (except under very particular conditions where civil
disobedience may be more important) are also part of citizenship. Social
movements have, however, generally campaigned for the extension of

citizens ’ rights, not for redefinitions of citizenship obligations.
There may be a tension between environmentalism and other social
movements over the balance between citizenship rights and obligations.