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Principles of Risk Communication 47

When used consistently, message maps promote in multiple partners
the ability to speak in harmony. Message maps also minimize chances of
“speaker’s regret” (regretting saying something inappropriate or regret-
ting not saying something that should have been said).
A printed copy of a message map allows spokespeople during inter-
views to “check off” the message map talking points they want to make
in order of their importance. This helps prevent omissions of key facts or
misstatements that could provoke misunderstandings, controversy, or out-
rage. Message maps allow organizations to develop messages in advance
for emergencies and crises. Once developed, the effectiveness of message
maps can be tested through focus groups and other empirical studies.
Message maps were first developed in the early 1990s as a special-
ized tool for communicating effectively in high-stress, high-concern, or
emotionally charged situations. Message maps were first widely adopted
as a risk communication tool in the aftermath of the anthrax attacks in
the autumn of 2001. For example, early in 2002, the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention conducted intensive message mapping sessions
focused on the communication challenges posed by a potential smallpox
attack. One product of this workshop was several hundred smallpox mes-
sages maps.
Seven steps are involved in constructing a message map:

Step 1
The first step in message mapping is to identify stakeholders—interested,
affected, or influential parties—for a selected issue or topic of high concern.
Stakeholders can be distinguished further by prioritizing them according
to their potential to affect outcomes and their credibility with other stake-
holders. For example, stakeholders in a crisis situation might include
• Victims
• Victim families
• Directly affected individuals
• Emergency response personnel
• Public health personnel (local, county, state, national)
• Law enforcement personnel
• Hospital personnel
• Families of emergency response, law enforcement, and hospital personnel
• Government agencies (all levels)
• Politicians/legislators
• Unions
• The media (all types)