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Queer theory 161

generate and guarantee the binary gender system. Against this position, she argues that
biology is itself always already culturally gendered as ‘male’ and ‘female’, and, as such,
already guarantees a particular version of the feminine and the masculine. Therefore,
the distinction between sex and gender is not a distinction between nature and culture:
‘the category of “sex” is itself a gendered category, fully politically invested, naturalized
but not natural’ (143). In other words, there is not a biological ‘truth’ at the heart of
gender; sex and gender are both cultural categories.
Furthermore, it is not just that ‘gender is not to culture as sex is to nature; gender is
also the discursive/cultural means by which “sexed nature” or “a natural sex” is pro-
duced and established as “prediscursive”, prior to culture, a politically neutral surface
on which culture acts. . . . [In this way,] the internal stability and binary frame for sex is
effectively secured . . . by casting the duality of sex in a prediscursive domain’ (11). As
Butler explains, ‘there is no reason to divide up human bodies into male and female
sexes except that such a division suits the economic needs of heterosexuality and lends
a naturalistic gloss to the institution of heterosexuality’ (143). Therefore, as she con-
tends, ‘one is not born a woman, one becomes one; but further, one is not born female,
one becomes female; but even more radically, one can if one chooses, become neither
female nor male, woman nor man’ (33).
According to Butler’s argument, gender is not the expression of biological sex, it is
performatively constructed in culture. In this way, ‘Gender is the repeated stylization of
the body, a set of repeated acts within a highly rigid regulatory frame that congeal over
time to produce the appearance of substance, of a natural sort of being’ (43–4). In
other words, gender identities consist of the accumulation of what is outside (i.e. in
culture) in the belief that they are an expression of what is inside (i.e. in nature). As a
result ‘“persons” only become intelligible through becoming gendered in conformity
with recognizable standards of intelligibility’ (22). 34 Femininity and masculinity are
not expressions of ‘nature’, they are ‘cultural performances in which their “naturalness”
[is] constituted through discursively constrained performative acts . . . that create the
effect of the natural, the original, and the inevitable’ (xxviii–xxix).
Butler’s theory of performativity is a development of J.L. Austin’s (1962) theory of
performative language. Austin divides language into two types, constative and perform-
ative. Constative language is descriptive language. ‘The sky is blue’, is an example of
a constative statement. Performative language, on the other hand, does not merely
describe what already exists, it brings something into being. ‘I now pronounce you hus-
band and wife’ is an obvious example; it does not describe something, it brings it into
existence; that is, when the words are spoken by an appropriate person, they transform
two single people into a married couple. Butler argues that gender works in much the
same way as performative language. As she explains, ‘there is no identity behind the
expressions of gender; that identity is performatively constituted by the very “expres-
sions” that are said to be its results’ (Butler, 1999: 33). One of the first performative
speech acts we all encounter is the pronouncement, ‘It’s a girl’ or ‘It’s a boy’. Each pro-
nouncement comes with rules and regulations, which we are expected to follow and
obey: ‘little boys do this, little girls don’t do that’, etc. Various discourses, including
those from parents, educational institutions, the media, will all combine to ensure our