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162 Chapter 7 Gender and sexuality

conformity to ‘performativity as cultural ritual, as the reiteration of cultural norms’
(Butler, 2000: 29). In this way, ‘the performance of gender creates the illusion of a prior
substantiality – a core gendered self – and construes the effect of the performative ritual
of gender as necessary emanations or causal consequences of that prior substance’ (ibid.).
Butler’s concept of performativity should not be confused with the idea of per-
formance understood as a form of play-acting, in which a more fundamental iden-
tity remains intact beneath the theatricality of the identity on display. Gender
performativity is not a voluntary practice, it is a continual process of almost discip-
linary reiteration: ‘gender performativity cannot be theorized apart from the forcible
and reiterative practice of regulatory sexual regimes . . . and in no way presupposes
a choosing subject’ (Butler, 1993: 15). Sarah E. Chinn (1997) provides an excellent
summary of the process:

While we may recognize that gender is coercive, it is familiar; it is ourselves. The
naturalizing effects of gender means that gender feels natural – even the under-
standing that it is performative, that our subjectivities themselves are constructed
through its performance, does not make it feel any the less intrinsic. Our identities
depend upon successful performance of our genders, and there is an entire cultural
arsenal of books, films, television, advertisements, parental injunctions and peer
surveillance to make sure those performances are (ideally) unconscious and suc-
cessful (306–7).

Butler (1999) chooses ‘drag’ as a model for explanation not, as some critics seem to
think, because she thinks it is ‘an example of [the] subversion [of gender]’ (xxii), but
because ‘it dramatize[s] the signifying gestures through which gender itself is estab-
lished’ (xxviii). Drag exposes the assumed and apparent unity and fictional coherence
of the normative heterosexual performance of gender. As Butler explains, ‘In imitating
gender, drag implicitly reveals the imitative structure of gender itself – as well as its
contingency’ (175). To be in drag is not to copy an original and natural gender iden-
35
tity, it is to ‘imitate the myth of originality itself’ (176). As she explains,

If gender attributes . . . are not expressive but performative, then these attributes
effectively constitute the identity they are said to express or reveal. The distinction
between expression and performativeness is crucial. If gender attributes and acts,
the various ways in which a body shows or produces its cultural signification, are
performative, then there is no preexisting identity by which an act or attribute
might be measured; there would be no true or false, real or distorted acts of gen-
der, and the postulation of a true gender identity would be revealed as a regulatory
fiction. That gender reality is created through sustained social performances means
that the very notions of an essential sex and a true or abiding masculinity or
femininity are also constituted as part of the strategy that conceals gender’s per-
formative character and the performative possibilities for proliferating gender
configurations outside the restricting frames of masculinist domination and com-
pulsory heterosexuality (180). 36