Page 54 - Educational Technology A Primer for the 21st Century

42 2 Learning in the Context of Technologies
Based on the research of the socio-constructivism, Vygotsky (1987) puts for-
ward the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This is a “range of tasks that are
too difficult for an individual to master alone, but can be mastered with the assis-
tance or guidance of adults or more-skilled peers (Vygotsky, 1987).” Another part
of this theory is scaffolding, which emphasizes to give the learner the right amount
of assistance at the right time. If the learner can perform a task with some assis-
tance, then he or she is closer to mastering it. These theories have an important
influence and enlightenment on teaching, and some new teaching methods have
formed, such as anchored instruction, cooperative learning, and reciprocal
instruction.

Extended reading:
• Anchored instruction

Refers to instruction in which the material to be learned is presented in the context of
an authentic event that serves to anchor or situate the material and, further, allows it
to be examined from multiple perspectives. (Bransford et al., 1990,p.5)

• Collaborative learning
Collaborative learning involves working together as a group to accomplish shared
goals to maximize the learning of each individual. (Huang & Liu, 2001)

• Reciprocal instruction

Reciprocal instruction is an instructional activity that takes the form of a dialogue
between teachers and students regarding segments of text for the purpose of con-
structing the meaning of text. (Palincsar & Brown, 1986)

2.2.4 Other Learning Theories

Besides behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism, there are many other
learning theories, which play an important role in guiding teaching and learning
activities, such as connectivism and humanism.

2.2.4.1 Connectivism
Over the last twenty years, technology has changed how we live, how we com-
municate, and how we learn. With the development of the information technology,
such as social networking and cloud computing, connectivism has been put forward
and gained increasing attention. The main representatives include George Siemens
and Stephen Downes.