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Evolution and Theories of Communication | 81

the world around him, and a range of quite superficial cues can determine
judgments not only of the personal interest value of the incoming informa-
tion but also of its credibility (i.e., cognitive dissonance).

The Social Environment of Communication
One early and important concept with which to analyse if the mass media is a
part of a social system is that opinion leadership. As might be expected, opin-
ion leaders are influential within relatively restricted spheres. There are opin-
ion leaders for domestic appliances but nothing else apart from that. In some
aspects opinion leaders differ from followers, but how they differ depends on
the sort of innovation in question, (Katz 1961, Katz and Lazarfeld 1964). The
development of the idea of opinion leaders leads directly to the concept of a
two-step-flow of communication. A one-step-flow of communication exists
when the influence of the mass media is direct on the individual. This in fact
is the classic assumption of mass communication ‘affects’ research.
The two-step-flow of communication inserts the opinion leader as part
of intermediary step or link between the mass media and the person influ-
enced. So the process is one in which the mass media influences the opinion
leader, who then influences a second party. Of course, there is absolutely no
reason why there should not be a three, four or five step flow of communica-
tion or more. Likewise we may have just a single step. Research suggests that
direct influences by the media opinion leaders can serve merely to inform
others about an innovation. Being informed about new developments how-
ever, does not necessarily lead to their adoption. This conceptualization has
bred a whole specialization in social sciences—the diffusion of innovation,
which studies the way in which important innovations contraception, agri-
cultural methods, etc.) lead to adoption in society. It tends to concern itself
more with the problems of modernization in Third World countries but
obviously is by no means limited to this.

Selective Exposure and Congruence Dissonance
The reader, viewer, or listener may not watch, read, or hear even one item of
the vast output of mass media—he may not even pay attention to that which
he is nominally viewing or read everything chosen by his newspaper. The
point is simple—people select which of the devices of mass media to use.
This would be fairly banal, but for certain findings. People tend to expose
themselves to mass media, which reflect points of view, which are mostly
like their own. The theoretical basis of this is a little clouded. One suggestion
would be, of course, a psychological abhorrence of ideas, which conflict with
one’s own. Contradictory ideas are avoided because they are psychologically
uncomfortable. This idea is strengthened by the congruence dissonance

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