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86 Chapter 4

When low and high uncertainty- avoidance individuals come together, they may
threaten or frighten each other. Uncertainty avoidance affects preferences for
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leadership styles, conformity, and discussion processes. Cultures high in uncertainty
avoidance rely on clear rules, consistently enforced, with the leader expected to struc-
ture the work of the group and behave autocratically. They prefer structure and clear
procedures. In contrast, low uncertainty avoidance cultures prefer democratic leader-
ship approaches. High uncertainty- avoidance cultures value predictability and
security; nonconformist behavior threatens this predictability. Conformity to the
leader and group opinion is the norm for high avoidance cultures, whereas dissent
Masculinity (as applied
to culture) and disagreement are tolerated, even encouraged, in low avoidance cultures.
The quality of
cultures that value Masculinity– Femininity
assertiveness and
dominance. Masculinity refers to cultures that value stereotypical masculine behaviors such as
assertiveness and dominance. This is contrasted with femininity, referring to cul-
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tures that value behaviors such as nurturing and caring for others. Masculine cultures,
Femininity (as applied which include Japan, Austria, Mexico, and Venezuela, prize achievement, accumula-
to culture) tion of wealth, aggressiveness, and what we would call “macho” behavior. Feminine
The quality of cultures, which include the Scandinavian countries, The Netherlands, and Thailand,
cultures that value value interpersonal relationships, nurturing, service to and caring for others, particu-
nurturing and caring larly the poor and unfortunate. The United States is a moderately masculine culture.
for others. Lustig and Cassotta observe that masculinity and femininity affect a number of
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preferences related to small groups. Masculine cultures are more comfortable with a
controlling, directive leadership. Such cultures value objectivity and control, qualities
Low- Context exhibited by authoritarian leaders. Feminine cultures, which value relationships and
Communication
subjectivity, prefer a more participative, democratic leadership style. Stereotypical
Communication masculinity, with its emphasis on assertiveness and ambition, does not value confor-
wherein the primary mity highly. In contrast, femininity, which stereotypically values cooperation and
meaning of a
message is carried group- based decision making, expects and values conformity. Finally, social roles
by the verbal or between men and women are more clearly differentiated in high masculine cultures.
explicit part of the Males are more likely to undertake task- related roles and females, socioemotional
message. ones. This affects the roles performed in small groups, including who will compete for
the leadership role and whether women will be accepted in leadership and other high-
status positions.
High- Context
Communication
Communication Low- and High- Context Communication
wherein the primary The final cultural characteristic we will consider is low- versus high- context communi-
meaning of a cation. In low- context communication, the primary meaning of a message is carried
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message is by the verbal, or explicit, part of the message, whereas in high- context communication,
conveyed by features the primary meaning is conveyed by certain features of the situation. In other words,
of the situation or in a high- context culture, what is not said may be more important in determining
context instead of the
verbal, explicit part of meaning than what is said. In high- context cultures, words aren’t needed because
the message. members of the culture share the same understandings and can take much for granted.
For example, one of our students who is Roman Catholic said she was completely

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