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Ethics: An Overview

important, too, and microbreaks can be taken to interrupt of normative ethics has historically been dominated by
intense situations, to rest arms and wrists, or to rest eyes. philosophers, who have applied rules of reason and logic
Much ergonomics information is available in print to find answers to humanity’s perplexing moral questions.
and on the Internet, published by organizations such as One apparent obstacle to this process is that logical
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration reasoning, at least at first glance, does not seem to lead dif-
(OSHA), the National Institute of Occupational Safety ferent people to the same ethical conclusions and answers.
and Health (NIOSH), the National Safety Council, the If people, ideally, used reason correctly, what would it tell
Human Factors and Ergonomic Society, and others. us about ethics? This search for the best, most logical prin-
OSHA is developing ergonomics program standards that ciples to follow is the realm of general ethics. The end
were to be published in 2000 (OSHA 1999). Consultants results of this search are ethical systems or theories—
can provide technical expertise to help with all phases of groups of systematically related ethical principles that
ergonomics assessment and the implementation of correc- attempt to describe and prescribe human morality. Schol-
tive measures and/or training programs. ars in applied ethics then take these ethical systems and
principles and apply them to contemporary moral ques-
SEE ALSO Office Layout
tions, dilemmas, and life-situations. Examples of specific
studies in applied ethics include business, government,
BIBLIOGRAPHY and professional ethics (medical, legal, etc.).
“Occupational Safety and Health Administration.” Retrieved
October 18, 2005, from
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/ergonomics/index.html. 1999. RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL
ETHICS
Perhaps the greatest continual struggle related to ethics
Patricia R. Graves
throughout history has been between followers of reli-
gious ethics and proponents of philosophical ethics. Reli-
gious ethics gives preeminence to divine authority.
ETHICS: AN OVERVIEW Actions that conform to the will or teachings of this
authority are considered good or right; actions that do not
Ethics is the study of questions of morality, the search to
conform are seen as bad, wrong, or evil. It is believed that
understand what is right, wrong, good, and bad. It is the people can find or discover this divine will through sacred
branch of philosophy that systematically studies moral scriptures, the teachings of religious leaders, prayer, and
ideals and goals, motives of choice, and patterns of good personal revelation. On the other hand, philosophical
and bad conduct. The word ethics is derived from the ethics places its primary emphasis on rational thought and
Greek ethikos, meaning “character.” Issues of personal
the rules of logic. This view assumes that individuals can
character, and the search for the best patterns for living, use reason to find answers to moral questions, making
were at the core of Greek ethical philosophy. In contrast, religious authority unnecessary.
the word moral is from the Latin more (MOR-ay). The
This conflict can reach critical proportions. Many
Romans used this term to describe the customary ways
philosophers who have challenged the religious authorities
that people tended to act. Thus, though the two terms are
of their times have been branded as dangerous heretics.
often used interchangeably today, morality has evolved to
mean the social norms that people are taught and condi- Foreshadowing the pattern that would repeat itself for
tioned to follow, while ethics has come to refer to the centuries, the central charge leading to the conviction and
rational investigating and questioning of these norms. eventual execution of Socrates was that he questioned the
gods of Athens and taught others to do the same. How-
This view of ethics is said to be normative, since it
ever, it is also worth noting that some of history’s most
assumes the existence of at least some universal moral
principles and standards. influential ethical thinkers have argued that the perceived
conflict between reason and faith may only be illusionary
Ethics tends to be a cross-disciplinary field of study.
and that faith and reason need not be adversaries, but can
Theologians study ethics and morality in light of religious
support and even validate each other.
teachings and divine commands. Psychologists seek to
understand how people’s values influence their thinking,
behavioral motivations, and personal development. Soci- ETHICAL SYSTEMS
ologists attempt to identify and explain varying cultural There have been about as many different philosophical
norms and practices. Business educators try to help com- viewpoints on ethics as there have been people thinking
panies, employees, and professionals avoid expensive and about them. However, these can be roughly grouped into
counterproductive ethical misdeeds. However, the study three main families of ethical systems. The first are virtue-

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