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Scientific Management

It establishes school as a foundation for education Orr, M. T. (2004, Spring). Community college and secondary
and workplace connections and requires commu- school collaboration on workforce development and educa-
nity involvement and support. (1999) tion reform. The Catalyst, 33(1), 20–24.
A time of exploration. (2001, October). Techniques, 76(7), 26.
Career awareness is further enhanced by field trips, U.S. Department of Education. Office of Vocational and Adult
guest speakers, and simulations to introduce elementary Education.
students to the world of work. Merely introducing stu- http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/cte/index.html
dents to the concepts of jobs, careers, and the workplace U.S. Department of Labor. Employment and Training Adminis-
at the elementary level prepares them for the exploration tration. (n.d.). What work requires of schools. Retrieved
of careers when they enter the middle level grades. November 22, 2005, from
http://wdr.doleta.gov/SCANS/whatwork

SUMMARY
The challenge for educators at all levels is how to plan and Jill T. White
to prepare students for a future workplace where the tech-
nological requirements may be far different from those
that have been predicted. Consideration of workforce
development issues can be found at the elementary, mid- SCIENTIFIC
dle, and high school levels as well as at the postsecondary MANAGEMENT
level. Federal, state, and local governments have accepted Early attempts to study behavior in organizations came
an active role to identify and to promote the integration from a desire by industrial efficiency experts to answer this
of occupational skills in the curricula. question: What can be done to get workers to do more
SEE ALSO Training and Development work in less time? It is not surprising that attempts to
answer this question were made at the beginning of the
twentieth century, since this was a period of rapid indus-
BIBLIOGRAPHY trialization and technological change in the United States.
Association for Experiential Education. (n.d.). About Experien-
As engineers attempted to make machines more efficient,
tial Education. Retrieved November 22, 2005, from
http://www.aee2.org/customer/pages.php?pageid=47 it was natural to focus efforts on the human side—mak-
ing people more productive, too.
Bobbitt, L. Michelle, Inks, Scott A., Kemp, Katie J., et al. (2000,
April). Integrating marketing courses to enhance team-based The scientific method of management and job
experiential learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 22, design, which originated with Frederick Winslow Taylor
15–24. (1856–1915), entails analyzing jobs to determine what
Brown, Bettina Lankard (1999). School-to-work and elementary the worker does and what the requirements are for the job.
education. Retrieved November 22, 2005, from After this analysis, the job is designed to ensure that
http://www.cete.org/acve/docgen.asp?tbl=pab&ID=94 employees will not be asked to perform work beyond their
Career and Technical Educational National Dissemination Cen- abilities. Another aspect of the scientific method is that
ter. http://www.nccte.org/tqi/index.aspx jobs are divided into small segments for the worker to per-
Emeagwali, N. S. (2005). States’ varying policies regarding dual form, a method that works well in establishing expected
enrollment programs. Techniques, 80(1), 16. levels of worker performance. While not as popular as in
Frontczak, N. T., and Kelly, C. A. (2000, April). Special issues the past, this method of job design is still used in the
on experiential learning in marketing education. Journal of twenty-first century.
Marketing Education, 22, 3–5.
To Taylor, it was obvious that workers were produc-
Gray, Kenneth (2004, October). Is high school career and tech- ing below their capacities in the industrial shops of his
nical education obsolete? Phi Delta Kappan, 86(2), 130.
day. As a foreman in a steel mill, Taylor noticed, for exam-
Hughes, Katherine L., Bailey, Thomas R., and Karp, Melinda ple, that laborers wasted movement when moving pig
Mechur (2002, December). School-to-work: Making a differ-
ence in education. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(4), 272. iron. Believing that productivity could be increased sub-
stantially, Taylor carefully analyzed the workers’ motions
Hyslop-Margison, Emery J. (2005). Liberalizing vocational study:
democratic approaches to career education. Lanham, MD: Uni- and steps and studied the proper distribution of work and
versity Press of America. rest. Based on this analysis, he determined a more appro-
priate method for performing each aspect of the job. He
Jex, Steve M. (2002). Organizational psychology: A scientist-prac-
titioner approach. New York: Wiley. then carefully selected employees and gave them detailed
instructions on how to perform the job using the new
Littrell, Joseph J., Lorenz, James H., and Smith, Harry T.
(2006). From school to work. Tinley Park, IL: Goodheart- method. He required that employees follow the instruc-
Willcox. tions precisely. As an incentive, all workers were told that

654 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BUSINESS AND FINANCE, SECOND EDITION