Page 59 - Foundations of Cognitive Psychology : Core Readings

58 Jay L. McClelland, David E.Rumelhart, and Geoffrey E.Hinton

Multiple Simultaneous Constraints
Reaching and Grasping Hundreds of times each day we reach for things.We
nearly never think about these acts of reaching.And yet, each time, a large
number of different considerations appear to jointly determine exactly how we
will reach for the object.The position of the object, our posture at the time,
what else we mayalsobeholding,the size,shape,and anticipatedweightof
the object, any obstacles that may be in the way—all of these factors jointly
determine the exact method we will use for reaching and grasping.
Consider the situation shown in figure 4.1. Figure 4.1A shows Jay McClel-
land’s hand, in typing position at his terminal.Figure 4.1B indicates the posi-
tion his hand assumed in reaching for a small knob on the desk beside the
terminal.We will let him describe what happened in the first person:

On the desk next to my terminal are several objects—a chipped coffee
mug, the end of a computer cable, a knob from a clock radio.I decide to
pick the knob up.At first I hesitate, because it doesn’t seem possible. Then
I just reach for it, and find myself grasping the knob in what would nor-
mally be considered a very awkward position—but it solves all of the
constraints.I’m not sure what all the details of the movement were, so I
let myself try it a few times more.I observe that my right hand is carried
up off the keyboard, bent at the elbow, until my forearm is at about a 30
angle to the desk top and parallel to the side of the terminal.The palm is
facing downward through most of this.Then, my arm extends and lowers
down more or less parallel to the edge of the desk and parallel to the side

of the terminal and, as it drops, it turns about 90 so that the palm is fac-
ing the cup and the thumb and index finger are below.The turning mo-
tion occurs just in time, as my hand drops, to avoid hitting the coffee cup.
My indexfinger andthumb closeinonthe knob andgrasp it,withmy
hand completely upside down.
Though the details of what happened here might be quibbled with, the broad
outlines are apparent.The shape of the knob and its position on the table; the
starting position of the hand on the keyboard; the positions of the terminal, the
cup, and the knob; and the constraints imposed by the structure of the arm and
the musculature used to control it—all these things conspired to lead to a so-
lution which exactly suits the problem.If any of these constraints had not been
included, the movement would have failed.The hand would have hit the cup
or the terminal—or it would have missed the knob.
The Mutual Influence of Syntax and Semantics Multiple constraints operate just
as strongly in language processing as they do in reaching and grasping.Rumel-
hart (1977) has documented many of these multiple constraints.Rather than
catalog them here, we will use a few examples from language to illustrate the
fact that the constraints tend to be reciprocal: The example shows that they do
not run only from syntax to semantics—they also run the other way.
It is clear, of course, that syntax constrains the assignment of meaning.
Without the syntactic rules of English to guide us, we cannot correctly under-
stand who has done what to whom in the following sentence: