Page 286 - From Smart Grid to Internet of Energy

256 From smart grid to internet of energy

drawing nonlinear dynamics. The AGC manages the power demand by tracking
and compensating the frequency of entire systems since a fluctuation on the load
causes equivalent changes on the system frequency, and the load demand is
compensated by stabilizing the system frequency again [10].
Transmission networks, substations and management centers of utility net-
work comprise core components of smart grid infrastructure where the grid term
stands for all the parts of transmission system as a backbone. The increased use
of ICT and advanced metering-monitoring applications on the smarter grid
involved automation systems at substations and feeders, data acquisition and
management solutions, demand management operations and marketing chal-
lenges. Therefore, some solutions are improved based on classical methods such
as hierarchical grid control, active and reactive power quality (PQ) control,
DSM, DER penetration control, virtual power plant (VPP) control, cyber-secure
communication, and soft computing methods. The smart grid infrastructure can
be analyzed in three technical perspectives that are infrastructure, management,
and protection.
In addition to the legacy devices, the distribution network is integrated with
several novel devices regarding to the improvement of smart grid applications.
One of the most significant contributions of smart grid to the distribution net-
work is to increase the system flexibility and reducing the losses. Although the
demand response is complicated, the development of IEDs and ICT enable
smarter distribution network. The EV integration to the existing grid also brings
numerous improvements in terms of smart grid applications in distribution net-
work level. The grid-to-vehicle (G2V) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications
are involved with charge and discharge cycles where the energy storage systems
(ESSs) are gradually developed. The smart grid infrastructure involves the high-
est share of smart generation, transmission and distribution, metering, monitor-
ing, management and communication sections.
Due to its ubiquitous computing infrastructure, IoT provides sophisticated
contributions to smart grid at any levels. The WSN, RFID, SCADA, and
M2M communication comprise four main integration instrument of IoT to
smart grid [8]. The middleware that is a generic description for software and
services providing interaction between two layers accommodate heterogenous
devices and applications to operate in a harmony. IoT middleware are also
required to integrate communication systems in the context of smart grid for
generation, transmission, and distribution levels. The cloud based IoT applica-
tions that are being extensively improved provides stable and flexible CPS for
SCADA and WSN networks.

7.2.1 Smart grid applications in generation level
The critical applications, measurement and control topics, ICT and devices used
in smart grid are summarized in Table 7.2. The table is organized regarding to
the generation, transmission and distribution stages and additional consumption