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312 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRONIC ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY

(Rocon and Pons, 2011). An assistive robot is an actuated mechanism programmable in
two or more axes with a degree of autonomy, which performs useful tasks for disabled
and/or elderly people to overcome social, infrastructural and other barriers to indepen-
dence, full participation in society and carrying out activities safely and easily (Hersh and
Johnson, 2008).
The need for robotic technology is on the rise due to the global trend of a growing age-
ing population, which directly results in the following (Zollo et al., 2013):
• A considerably larger number of elderly people in need of care, including social, home
and healthcare services.
• A smaller number of available informal caregivers (e.g., family caregivers).
• A shrinking healthcare workforce to provide care to increasing patient numbers.
• An increasing need in both developing and developed countries for assistive
technology and services.

In response to these needs, specialised technologies such as assistive robots are being
developed that have the potential to empower people with disabilities to be more inde-
pendent and become more involved in activities in their homes, schools and communities
(Zollo et al., 2013).

A Brief History of Robotics

The main era of robotic research and development was the mid-20th century, primarily
within an industrial environment where repetitive movements and lifting of heavy objects
made the use of machines over humans attractive. Robots were mainly employed for tasks
that were too dirty, distant or dangerous for humans (Krebs and Volpe, 2013).
Joseph F. Engelberger and George Devol developed the first industrially used robot, the
Unimate, in 1961. This was a hydraulically driven, programmable, 2 tonne robotic arm,
adopted for automated die-casting. Engelberger had an interest in service robotics partic-
ularly in medical applications, and in 1984 he formed HelpMate Robotics. The HelpMate
was used to transport medical supplies around a hospital.
In the late 1960s, Scheinman from Stanford University innovated the first successfully
computer-controlled electrically powered robot arm – the Stanford arm. The articulated
arm had 6 degrees of freedom (DOFs) (Moran, 2007). Within the same decade, Stanford
Research Institute developed the robot ‘Shakey’, equipped with a vision system and bump
sensors. This was the first robot which used an artificial intelligence planner to gather
images of its surrounding environment and apply this to map a route to a user- specified
position. The robot was able to steer by differential control of its two drive motors and
could navigate its way around halls, applying information it obtained from its route
(Nilsson, 1984). Shakey could move at a speed of 2 metres per hour. The robot was known
as Shakey because its mounted camera shook as the robot moved.
Concurrently, Stanford also began development of the Stanford Cart, which was a
remotely controlled, TV-equipped mobile robot. By 1979, the robot was able to successfully