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Jefferson;
PRESIDENTS AND THE PRESS. See FDR and PRESIDENTS AND THE PRESS
Radio;
Thomas
Kennedy-Nixon Debates; Richard M. Nixon; One-Party Press; James Knox
Polk; Presidential Media Manipulation; Presidential News Conferences; Ronald
Reagan; Franklin D. Roosevelt.
PRESIDENTS' WIVES AND PRESS. See Hillary Clinton; Anna Eleanor Roo-
sevelt.

PRESS COUNCILS. Media in the United States generally have been reluctant
to cooperate with independent groups set up to hear complaints about the press.
The National News Council was created in 1973 but disbanded after 10 years
because it lacked financial support and was unable to persuade major news
organizations, including the New York Times, to participate in its hearings. It
investigated 242 complaints. The council, with membership from the public and
the media, had no power of enforcement other than the persuasiveness of its
decisions. Persons with complaints had to agree not to pursue legal action before
the council would agree to investigate. Supporters of the press council concept
contend that most persons aggrieved by the press are seeking vindication, not
compensation.
The Minnesota News Council probably has been the most successful in pro-
viding a noncourtroom forum for hearing complaints about media accuracy,
accessibility, and ethics. The Minnesota Newspaper Association and some of
the state's major dailies supported creation of the council in 1971. The council's
views on what is ethical have sometimes differed from court decisions on what
is legal. For example, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that newspapers are
under no legal obligation to print a letter from a person criticized in the paper,
but the Minnesota News Council has taken the view that a newspaper has an
ethical obligation to publish a response. On the other hand, the Supreme Court
has ruled the press has no legal right to keep sources confidential, but the press
council has recognized it is ethical to do so.
The Northwest News Council, funded in 1992 by Washington and Oregon
chapters of the Society of Professional Journalists, also has run into opposition
from some major media, including the Portland Oregonian and the Seattle
Times.
SOURCES: Sandra Braman, "Public Expectations of Media versus Standards of Codes
of Ethics," Journalism Quarterly, Spring 1988; Robert Shafer, "The Minnesota News
Council: Developing Standards for Press Ethics," Journalism Quarterly, Summer 1981.
Daniel J. Foley

PRESS PERFORMANCE. See Hutchins Commission; Kerner Commission;
New World Information and Communication Order; Ombudsmen; Press Coun-
cils.
PRESSURE GROUPS. See Lobbying; National Rifle Association; Political Ac-
tion Committees; Southern Christian Leadership Conference.