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62 Chapter 2 Understanding and conceptualizing interaction

tangible bits, augmented reality, and physicallvirtual integration
attentive environments (computers attend to user's needs)
the Workaday World (social aspects of technology use)
Ubiquitous computing ("ubicomp'~. The late Mark Weiser (1991), an influen-
tial visionary, proposed the interaction paradigm of ubiquitous computing (Figure
2.11). His vision was for computers to disappear into the environment so that we
would be no longer aware of them and would use them without thinking about
them. As part of this process, they should "invisibly" enhance the world that al-
ready exists rather than create artificial ones. Existing computing technology, e.g.,
multimedia-based systems and virtual reality, currently do not allow us to do this.
Instead, we are forced to focus our attention on the multimedia representations on
the screen (e.g., buttons, menus, scrollbars) or to move around in a virtual simu-
lated world, manipulating virtual objects.
So, how can technologies be designed to disappear into the background?
Weiser did not mean ubiquity in the sense of simply making computers portable so
that they can be moved from the desk into our pockets or used on trains or in bed.
He meant that technology be designed to be integrated seamlessly into the physical
world in ways that extend human capabilities. One of his prototypes was a "tabs,
pads, and boards" setup whereby hundreds of computer devices equivalent in size
to post-it notes, sheets of paper, and blackboards would be embedded in offices.
Like the spreadsheet, such devices are assumed to be easy to use, because they cap-
italize on existing knowledge about how to interact and use everyday objects. Also
like the spreadsheet, they provide much greater computational power. One of
Weiser's ideas was that the tabs be connected to one another, enabling them to be-
come multipurpose, including acting as a calendar, diary, identification card, and an
interactive device to be used with a PC.

Ubiquitous computing will produce nothing fundamentally new, but by making
everything faster and easier to do, with less strain and fewer mental gymnastics, it will
transform what is apparently possible (Weiser, 1991, p. 940).

Pervasive computing. Pervasive computing is a direct follow-on of ideas arising
from ubiquitous computing. The idea is that people should be able to access and in-
teract with information any place and any time, using a seamless integration of
technologies. Such technologies are often referred to as smart devices or informa-
tion appliances-designed to perform a particular activity. Commercial products
include cell phones and handheld devices, like PalmPilots. On the domestic front,
other examples currentIy being prototyped include intelligent fridges that signal
the user when stocks are low, interactive microwave ovens that allow users to ac-
cess information from the web while cooking, and smart pans that beep when the
food is cooked.
Wearable computing. Many of the ideas behind ubiquitous computing have
since inspired other researchers to develop technologies that are part of the envi-
ronment. The MIT Media Lab has created several such innovations. One example
is wearable computing (Mann, 1996). The combination of multimedia and wireless