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(in the epistemological dimension) and the individual/group/organizational sharing
and diffusion (in the ontological dimension) have to take place in order to create
knowledge and produce innovation. Each of the KM models presented in the next
section addresses this point in different but complementary ways.

Major Theoretical KM Models

Major theoretical KM models were chosen for this section based on the following
criteria:
• They represent a holistic approach to knowledge management (i.e., they are com-
prehensive and take into consideration people, process, organization and technology
dimensions).
• They have been reviewed, critiqued, and discussed extensively in the KM literature —
by practitioners, academics, and researchers.
• The models have been implemented and fi eld tested with respect to reliability and
validity.
This is not meant to be an exhaustive list or a defi nitive short list; but the models
have been selected with a view to providing the widest possible perspective on KM as
a whole combined with a deeper, more robust theoretical foundation to explain,
describe, and better predict how best to manage knowledge.

The von Krogh and Roos Model of Organizational Epistemology
The von Krogh and Roos KM model ( 1995 ) distinguishes between individual knowl-
edge and social knowledge. Von Krogh and Roos take an epistemological approach to
managing organizational knowledge: the organizational epistemology KM model.
While pinning down a defi nition of organizational has been problematic, and the term
is often used interchangeably with information , there are a number of issues that must
be addressed:
• How and why individuals within an organization come to know
• How and why organizations, as social entities, come to know
• What counts for knowledge of the individual and the organization
• What are the impediments in organizational KM?
The cognitive perspective (e.g., Varela 1992 ) proposes that a cognitive system,
whether it is a human brain or a computer, creates representations (i.e., models) of
reality and that learning occurs when these representations are manipulated. A cogni-