Page 30 - Laboratory Manual in Physical Geology

Solar
Solar
Solar
ATMOSPHERE (Water vapor, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.)
ene
energy ATMOSPHERE (TMOSPHERE (Water vapoater vapor, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.), oxygen, nitrogen, etc.)
gy
energy
Sublimation
Sublimation
Sublimation
CRYOSPHERE
CRYOSPHERE
YOSPHERE
Freezing
eezing
Condensation
Condensation
Condensation Freezing (Ice)
(Ice)
(Ice)
Atmospheric
Atmospheric Deposition
Atmospheric
Deposition
Deposition
precipitation
ecipitation
precipitation
Evaporation
Evaporation
Evaporation
Melting
Melting
ranspiration
Transpiration Melting
Transpiration
City
City
City
BIOSPHERE
BIOSPHERE
BIOSPHERE Volcano
olcano
Volcano
Surface water drainage
Surface water drainage
drainage
water
Surface
HYDROSPHERE
HYDROSPHERE
HYDROSPHERE
(Water)
(Water)
ater)
Groundwater
Groundwater
oundwater
Geothermal
Geothermal
Geothermal
energy
ene
energy
gy
(
Rocks,
soil)
LITHOSPHERE (Rocks, soil)
LITHOSPHERE
LITHOSPHERE (Rocks, soil)

FIGURE 1.7 Hydrologic cycle (water cycle). Note the relationship of processes of change, and states of water, to Earth’s spheres. Also

note that the hydrologic cycle is driven (forced to operate) by energy from the Sun (solar energy), energy from Earth’s interior (geothermal
energy), and gravity.
Measuring Earth Materials known as a base-10 or decimal system. The International
System of Units (SI) is the modern version of metric
Every material has a mass that can be weighed and a system symbols, numbers, base-10 numerals, powers of
volume of space that it occupies. An object’s mass can be ten, and prefixes (see page xi ) .
measured by determining its weight under the pull of
Earth’s gravity (using a balance). An object’s volume can Orders of Magnitude and Scientific
be calculated by determining the multiple of its linear
dimensions (measured using a ruler) or directly measured Notation
by determining the volume of water that it displaces Differences of scale are sometimes expressed by powers
(using a graduated cylinder). In this laboratory, you will (multipliers) of ten as orders of magnitude . For example,
use metric balances, rulers, and graduated cylinders to if object “A” is 10 times larger than object “B,” then it
analyze and evaluate the dimensions and density of Earth is one order of magnitude larger (one power of ten, or
materials. Refer to page xiii at the front of this manual for 10 times larger). If object “A” is 100 times larger than
illustrations of this basic laboratory equipment. object “B,” then it is two orders of magnitude larger
(two powers of ten, or 100 times larger).
Metric System of Measurement Scientific (exponential) notation is a compact way
of expressing very large or small numbers using base-ten
People in different parts of the world have historically used
different systems of measurement. For example, people orders of magnitude. For example, in scientific notation,
in the United States have historically used the English three orders of magnitude larger would be “10 raised to
3
system of measurement based on units such as inches, feet, a power of three” and written as 10 . (This is also called
miles, pounds, gallons, and degrees Fahrenheit. However, “ten to the three” or “ten to the third.”) The superscript
for more than a century, most nations of the world have “3” is called the exponent. So 3800 can be expressed in
3
used the metric system of measurement based on units scientific notation as 3.8 * 10 . For very small numbers,
-3
such as meters, liters, and degrees Celsius. In 1975, the the exponent is negative, so 0.0038 is written 3.8 * 10
U.S. Congress recognized the value of a global system (“3.8 times ten to the negative three”).
of measurement and adopted the metric system as the Scientific notation simplifies very large or small
official measurement system of the United States. This numbers by getting rid of zeros. For example, one billion
9
conversion is not yet complete, so Americans currently use is written as 1 * 10 instead of 1,000,000,000. Notice
both English and metric systems of measurement. In this that the exponent signifies how many places to move
laboratory we will only use the metric system. the decimal place to the right (larger). One-millionth is
-6
Each kind of metric unit can be divided or multiplied written as 1 * 10 instead of 0.000001. In this case the
by 10 and its powers to form the smaller or larger units exponent signifies how many places to move the decimal
of the metric system. Therefore, the metric system is also point to the left (smaller).
Thinking Like a Geologist ■ 15