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34 MANAGING KNOWLEDGE WORK AND INNOVATION

method and validated by the scientific community, such knowledge claims
transcend particular contexts (Collins, 1985). In contrast, ‘lawyers point to
the law finding of judges and the law making of legislatures’ (Halliday, 1985,
p. 426). Thus the knowledge claims of the legal profession extend only to par-
ticular jurisdictions and particular points in time. It is also important to recog-
nize that, as well as the broad epistemological differences that exist between
professions, such differences are also found amongst different specialisms
within a broad professional grouping (Drazin, 1990). This has implications
for management inasmuch as attempts to introduce standard work practices
and procedures (e.g. Knowledge Management systems and tools), may be per-
ceived as contrary to the ongoing epistemic practices and an unnecessary dis-
traction from core work processes.

Co-location

Another distinguishing feature of the type of work conducted by knowledge
workers in knowledge-intensive firms is that there is often the need to work
remotely from the employing firm, typically physically located at the client firm.
This physical co-location of knowledge workers can be an important manage-
ment issue to be addressed. For example, client firms may well be inclined to
offer permanent employment to knowledge workers who produce good results
and who might prove to be a lot less expensive if employed directly by the client
rather than on a consultancy basis. The client firm might therefore be in direct
competition with the employing firm for the services of knowledge workers. Not
only is management therefore required to focus on strategies to aid retention in
relation to direct competitors to the firm, they must also consider the develop-
ment of retention strategies in relation to their client firms.
In addition, knowledge workers are typically organized in teams with more or
less interdependence depending on the nature of the task. Physical co-location
can therefore also be problematic for team-working even when sophisticated
ICT is made available. The complexity of knowledge working often makes face-
to-face modes of interaction the only viable communication medium for sharing
and creating knowledge at critical points in the process. Here then, management
again is required to develop strategies and mechanisms that will enable the coor-
dination and integration of knowledge work processes across the team without
necessarily directly intervening in those processes.

‘Gold collar’ workers

The distinctive characteristics of knowledge workers and knowledge work
processes led to the term ‘gold collar’ worker being applied to knowledge
workers (Kelley, 1990). This term implies that these workers need to be
managed skilfully, provided with excellent working conditions and generally
afforded exceptional, or at least very good, terms and conditions of employ-
ment. There are exceptions to this naturally, particularly in large knowledge-

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