Page 175 - Microaggressions in Everyday Live Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

Racial Microaggressions and African Americans 149

Anderson, Clark & Williams, 1999; Utsey & Hook, 2007; Williams et al., 2003).
The reactions described in the microaggression process model of stress include
constant vigilance, bodily arousal, and depletion of resources leading to
medical conditions such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, respira-
tory problems, cirrhosis of the liver, obesity, and diabetes (Brondolo et al.,
2008; Karlsen & Nazroo, 2002; Kumanyika, 1993; McCord & Freeman, 1990;
USDHHS, 2001; Utsey & Hook, 2007). Rates of hypertension are higher than
that of the White population (National Center for Health Statistics, 1996).
While hypertension is believed to have a strong biological component among
African Americans, psychological stress has also been strongly implicated
in the high rates. African Americans exposed to videotaped or imaginal
depictions of racism showed increases in heart rate and digital blood fl ow
(Jones, Harrell, Morris - Prather, Thomas, & Omowale, 1996). Other studies
support these findings; encounters with race - related stress cause elevated

heart rates and blood pressure in both Black men and women (Armstead,
Lawler, Gordon, Cross, & Gibbons, 1989; Clark, 2000; National Center for
Health Statistics, 1996).

Psychological Health Consequences

The experience of discrimination has been found to be related to lower levels
of mastery and control, and to high levels of psychological distress (Broman,
Mavaddat, & Hsu, 2000). Perceived racism is associated with depression, lowered
life satisfaction, low self - esteem, and intense feelings of racial rage, anxiety,
paranoia, and helplessness (Carter, 2007; Clark et al., 1999; Feagin & Sykes, 1994;
Ridley, 2005; Sol ó rzano, Ceja, & Yosso, 2000). In summarizing the scholarly
works of Black psychologists on prolonged exposure to racism, Ponterotto,
Utsey, and Pedersen (2006) outline several psychological consequences.

• Alienation — Adoption of the cultural and racial reality of White America
can result in a profound sense of alienation. The alienation can be wide-
spread, such as being (1) detached from one ’ s personal identity (not know-
ing who one is as a racial/cultural being) and taking on the defi nition of
yourself from the oppressor; (2) estranged from your own family, friends,
and group; (3) isolated from other groups; (4) disaffected by one ’ s own
language, history, and culture; and (5) separated from one ’ s humanity.
• Internalized racism — This process involves accepting the racial reality of

the oppressor, accepting the standards, values, and beliefs of the larger
system, and developing an aversion to one ’ s own racial/ethnic heritage

1/19/10 6:11:44 PM
c07.indd 149
c07.indd 149 1/19/10 6:11:44 PM