Page 202 - Microaggressions in Everyday Live Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

176 gender microaggressions and sexism

and messages are clear: women are bad problem solvers, useless, less capable,
passive, and only valued by their appearance (objectification). If one looks

at the joke even more closely, there appears to be a masked form of hostility
directed toward women. Yet, we hear such jokes constantly in reference to
“ dumb blond jokes, ” “ airhead women, ” and references to female anatomy.
Sexist jokes seem to contain several characteristics: (1) they play out gender role
stereotypes, (2) they make fun of or deride women, (3) they allow socially unac-
ceptable hostility to be expressed toward women, (4) they culturally condition
both men and women as to the beliefs and roles both sexes should play, and
(5) they cause internalization of attitudes and beliefs by the target group. The
fact that women may find sexist jokes equally humorous may indicate the

latter, damaging process (Eckman & Friesen, 1982).
Studies on sexist jokes are revealing. In some studies, women reported
increased feelings of anger, surprise, contempt, and hostility when exposed to
hearing a number of sexist versus nonsexist jokes (LaFrance & Woodzicka, 1998).
Men who found sexist jokes enjoyable and funny were most likely endorsed
by those who were accepting of rape - myths, violence toward women, sexual
aggression toward women as sexual objects, and as targets to be manipulated
and controlled (Ryan & Kanjorski, 1998). In other words, sexist jokes are not
harmless, but instead demean women and perpetuate stereotypes.

THE DETRIMENTAL IMPACT OF GENDER
MICROAGGRESSIONS

A number of studies indicate that sexism and its various manifestations have
detrimental effects on the standard of living for women; expose them to greater
emotional and physical violence, sexual assaults, and sexual harassment;

confine them to lesser roles in society; affect the quality of health care and
education they receive; decrease their sense of self - worth; increase their psy-
chological distress; and are associated with certain mental disorders (Lyness &

Thompson, 2000; National Academies, 2006; Strickland, 1992; D. Sue, Sue, & Sue,
2010; U.S. Census Bureau, 2002). With the decrease of modern sexism and its
overt manifestations, one would hope to see a major improvement in the lives of
women. The fact that such inequities and negative consequences continue to
exist suggests sexism must be continuing to operate.
One major speculation is that overt sexists are not the ones who contribute to
inequities in employment, health care, and education, or to the detrimental psy-
chological consequences experienced by women, but rather well - intentioned

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