Page 312 - Religion in the Media Age Media, Religion & Culture

Notes 301

“school,” including Theodor Adorno, fled the rise of Nazism and, along with
their students, continued to play a role in social theory about media.
17 Tönnies (1957).
18 Horkheimer and Adorno (1972), pp 120–67; Adorno (1991). For a critical
analysis, see Kellner (1989), chapters 5 and 6.
19 A comprehensive review is beyond the scope of a footnote, but several accounts
of this research are available, including Liebert and Sprafkin (1988). For a crit-
ical appraisal, see McGuire (1986).
20 See Kubey and Csikszentmihalyi (1990) as an example, and for a thorough
review of the literature. See also Gunter and McAleer (1997), Bryant and
Zillmann (1994), and Huesmann and Malamuth (1986).
21 See Jamison (2002), Jamison (2000), and McDevitt and Chaffee (2000).
22 See, for example, Arnett (1992), Arnett (1991).
23 Cf., for example, the collection in Andersen and Collins (2004). See also, as an
example, Morgan (1987).
24 Charters (1933).
25 I do not intend to argue that these media do not have effects or that previous
research in this direction is invalid. There is, in fact, convincing evidence of
direct effects of various media on various audiences under various circum-
stances. The problem is that we know little of other media, other audiences, or
other circumstances as a result of many of these studies. Further, as I intro-
duced in Chapter 1 and will discuss in more detail later, some questions are
simply not amenable to study in terms of their supposed “effects.”
26 Habermas (1985). To Habermas, “lifeworld” is the expressive, natural, and
organic sphere of authentic experience, the place into which we are born and in
which we grow, raise our children, and pursue our individual quests for
meaning and value. “Systemworld” is our experience of the rationalization,
routinization, and bureaucratization of modern life.
27 For a complete discussion, see Hoover et al. (2004).
28 Thompson (1995), pp. 7–8.
29 Katz and Lazersfeld (1955).
30 Blumer (1975); see also McQuail (1970).
31 This was expressed, for example, in debates between the churches of the Protestant
establishment and the emergent Evangelical movement that was seen as far more
interested in such “directly effective” messages. For a discussion of these perspectives,
see Ellens (1974). For a defense of the Evangelical approach, see Armstrong (1979).
32 Quoted in Carpenter (1985), p. 15. See also Dorgan (1993).
33 Parker et al. (1955).
34 Parker et al. (1955).
35 Schultze (1987).
36 Horsfield (1984).
37 Hoover (1988).
38 Peck (1993).
39 Martin-Barbero (1997).
40 Moore (1995).
41 McDannell (1998).
42 Morgan (1998); Morgan and Promey (2001).
43 Schmidt (1995).
44 Winston (2000).
45 Hendershot (2004).
46 Admittedly, “media” can be understood as artifacts. See, for example, Moores’s
(1993) discussion of media technologies as objects in the context of private and
domestic spaces. The difference here is a matter of nuance perhaps. Thinking of