Page 73 - Silence in Intercultural Communication

60 Silence in Intercultural Communication

students’ academic success are written products, and it seems that risking face-loss
by articulating their views in spoken language is not worthwhile.

3.4 Cognitive domain

3.4.1 Norms of speed of interaction

As shown above, in comparison with their Australian counterparts, students in
Japan seem to be better trained in written learning processes than in spoken,
especially interactive, modes. In terms of cognitive processing, written learning
activities allow a longer period of time for processing thoughts and language. Fur-
thermore, in the written mode, reviewing is possible while preparing for produc-
tion. On the other hand, in spoken learning activities, unless based on a script,
less time is allowed for language processing and reviewing is much more diffi-
cult than in writing. Comparing the pace of turn-taking in Fuji and Tokyo high
schools shown in the above sections with my Australian university classroom data
(see Chapter 5), it would be reasonable to say that in Japanese high school class-
rooms, the normative pacing of interaction is generally slower than in Australian
classrooms, where students are more familiar with group discussions and volun-
tarily participation.

3.4.2 Approach to knowledge

It has been argued that the type of knowledge to be acquired by students shapes the
way it is taught (cf. Ballard & Clanchy 1991; Milner & Quilty 1996; Willing 1988;
Yoneyama 1999). Yoneyama (1999) argues that traditional, teacher-centred peda-
gogy prevalent in Japan “goes hand in hand with the objectivistic (or positivistic)
view of knowledge” (p. 142). Takeuchi (1995) also points out that “what is required
to survive in the examination war is to learn and memorise ‘objective’ knowledge,
accessible to the masses and attainable by diligence and hard work” (p. 236, quoted
in Yoneyama 1999). In such an approach, there is only one right answer to a ques-
tion, and other ideas or options are regarded as irrelevant or wrong. This has an
impact on the types of spoken participation seen in classrooms.
In my observation of Japanese high school classes, students rarely raised ‘new’
or ‘original’ questions. If ‘objectivistic’ knowledge is valued, disagreeing with or
questioning the teacher or the materials provided are out of question. In Austra-
lian university classroom contexts, on the other hand, an absence of this type of
questioning in students is identified as a ‘lack of critical thinking skills.’ This view