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References 245

challenges to program teams. The execution of these social marketing programs
can be challenging due to a lack of evidence for decision making or lack of solid re-
search methodologies to collect it, weak private sector markets, limited infrastruc-
ture, weak governance, and inefficient systems. In addition, lack of transparency,
divergent donor interests, limited viable partners, expensive media channels, lim-
ited professional capacity, and difficult social and political issues related to poverty
compound the problem. Program teams that are creative, committed, flexible, dy-
namic, and willing to continuously learn and adapt will more likely be successful.

QU ESTIONS F OR DISCUS S ION

1. PSI Madagascar’s program research found that while sales of Sûr’Eau contin-
ued to make impressive gains each year, the behavioral determinants of use
(self-efficacy and societal norms) did not change between 2004 and 2006.
Discuss why this might have happened and make recommendations as to what
marketers could have done when these data came to light.
2. Social marketing programmers sometimes design national programs that uti-
lize the public, private, and NGO sectors, simultaneously designing compo-
nents of programs differently for each sector—also known as the total market
approach. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of such an approach, and
cite examples where this approach would be useful.
3. Social marketing programs often sell products at highly subsidized rates tar-
geting the poor in developing countries. Some say health products for the poor
should be given away for free. Discuss the pros and cons of each approach.
4. Social marketing programs sometimes overlook the use of data or evidence in
decision making. Give three reasons why this may happen and three disadvan-
tages when it does.

A C KN O W L ED GMEN T S

The author would like to kindly acknowledge Cecilia Kwak and Meg Galas for their
generous contributions and give thanks to Nicole Andriamampianina, Megan Wilson,
Ashima Khanna, Annalise Blum, and David Alt. All photographs, charts, tables, and
sidebars used in this chapter were provided by Population Services International.

RE F E RE NCES

Ashraf, N., Berry, J., & Shapiro, J. M. (2007). Can higher prices stimulate product use? Evidence
from a field experiment in Zambia. Harvard Business School Working Paper 07-034.
Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://www.hbs.edu/research/pdf/07-034.pdf