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CHAPTER 4 • THE INTERNAL ASSESSMENT 105

goods companies. Test marketing can allow an organization to avoid substantial losses by
revealing weak products and ineffective marketing approaches before large-scale produc-
tion begins. Starbucks is currently test marketing selling beer and wine in its stores to boost
its “after 5 PM” sales.

Pricing
Five major stakeholders affect pricing decisions: consumers, governments, suppliers,
distributors, and competitors. Sometimes an organization will pursue a forward integration
strategy primarily to gain better control over prices charged to consumers. Governments
can impose constraints on price fixing, price discrimination, minimum prices, unit pricing,
price advertising, and price controls. For example, the Robinson-Patman Act prohibits
manufacturers and wholesalers from discriminating in price among channel member
purchasers (suppliers and distributors) if competition is injured.
Competing organizations must be careful not to coordinate discounts, credit terms, or
condition of sale; not to discuss prices, markups, and costs at trade association meetings;
and not to arrange to issue new price lists on the same date, to rotate low bids on contracts,
or to uniformly restrict production to maintain high prices. Strategists should view price
from both a short-run and a long-run perspective, because competitors can copy price
changes with relative ease. Often a dominant firm will aggressively match all price cuts by
competitors.
With regard to pricing, as the value of the dollar increases, U.S. multinational companies
have a choice. They can raise prices in the local currency of a foreign country or risk losing
sales and market share. Alternatively, multinational firms can keep prices steady and face
reduced profit when their export revenue is reported in the United States in dollars.
Intense price competition, created by the global economic recession, coupled with
Internet price-comparative shopping has reduced profit margins to bare minimum levels
for most companies. For example, airline tickets, rental car prices, hotel room rates, and
computer prices are lower today than they have been in many years.
In response to the economic recession, the family-dining chain Denny’s did something
that no family-dining chain had ever done before: give away breakfast from 6 AM until 2 PM
on February 8, 2009, at all of its restaurants in the United States. More than 2 million
people took advantage of the free breakfast at all but two of Denny’s 1,550 restaurants
nationwide. The entire promotion, including food, labor, and airing an ad on the Super
Bowl the Sunday before, cost Denny’s about $5 million. However, the firm reaped tons of
positive public relations as well as $50 million of free news coverage nationwide and
greatly increased customer loyalty. “People love free stuff when money’s tight,” says Dan
Ariely, a business professor at Duke University. Other firms recently set a price of zero on
their products, including McDonald’s, Starbucks, Dunkin’ Donuts, and Panera Bread.
Denny’s CEO Nelson Marchioli says that Denny’s did better than break even on the free
breakfast day, and it may do this promotion again. 18

Distribution
Distribution includes warehousing, distribution channels, distribution coverage, retail site
locations, sales territories, inventory levels and location, transportation carriers, wholesaling,
and retailing. Most producers today do not sell their goods directly to consumers. Various
marketing entities act as intermediaries; they bear a variety of names such as wholesalers,
retailers, brokers, facilitators, agents, vendors—or simply distributors.
Distribution becomes especially important when a firm is striving to implement a
market development or forward integration strategy. Some of the most complex and chal-
lenging decisions facing a firm concern product distribution. Intermediaries flourish in our
economy because many producers lack the financial resources and expertise to carry out
direct marketing. Manufacturers who could afford to sell directly to the public often can
gain greater returns by expanding and improving their manufacturing operations.
Successful organizations identify and evaluate alternative ways to reach their ultimate
market. Possible approaches vary from direct selling to using just one or many wholesalers
and retailers. Strengths and weaknesses of each channel alternative should be determined