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CHAPTER 6 • STRATEGY ANALYSIS AND CHOICE 197

strategy issues that face an enterprise. A major responsibility of strategists is to guide the
development of coalitions, to nurture an overall team concept, and to gain the support of
key individuals and groups of individuals.
In the absence of objective analyses, strategy decisions too often are based on the poli-
tics of the moment. With development of improved strategy-formation tools, political factors
become less important in making strategic decisions. In the absence of objectivity, political
factors sometimes dictate strategies, and this is unfortunate. Managing political relationships
is an integral part of building enthusiasm and esprit de corps in an organization.
A classic study of strategic management in nine large corporations examined the polit-
9
ical tactics of successful and unsuccessful strategists. Successful strategists were found to
let weakly supported ideas and proposals die through inaction and to establish additional
hurdles or tests for strongly supported ideas considered unacceptable but not openly
opposed. Successful strategists kept a low political profile on unacceptable proposals and
strived to let most negative decisions come from subordinates or a group consensus,
thereby reserving their personal vetoes for big issues and crucial moments. Successful
strategists did a lot of chatting and informal questioning to stay abreast of how things were
progressing and to know when to intervene. They led strategy but did not dictate it. They
gave few orders, announced few decisions, depended heavily on informal questioning, and
sought to probe and clarify until a consensus emerged.
Successful strategists generously and visibly rewarded key thrusts that succeeded.
They assigned responsibility for major new thrusts to champions, the individuals most
strongly identified with the idea or product and whose futures were linked to its success.
They stayed alert to the symbolic impact of their own actions and statements so as not to
send false signals that could stimulate movements in unwanted directions.
Successful strategists ensured that all major power bases within an organization were
represented in, or had access to, top management. They interjected new faces and new
views into considerations of major changes. This is important because new employees and
managers generally have more enthusiasm and drive than employees who have been with
the firm a long time. New employees do not see the world the same old way; nor do they
act as screens against changes. Successful strategists minimized their own political expo-
sure on highly controversial issues and in circumstances in which major opposition from
key power centers was likely. In combination, these findings provide a basis for managing
political relationships in an organization.
Because strategies must be effective in the marketplace and capable of gaining
internal commitment, the following tactics used by politicians for centuries can aid
strategists:
• Equifinality—It is often possible to achieve similar results using different means or
paths. Strategists should recognize that achieving a successful outcome is more
important than imposing the method of achieving it. It may be possible to generate
new alternatives that give equal results but with far greater potential for gaining
commitment.
• Satisfying—Achieving satisfactory results with an acceptable strategy is far better
than failing to achieve optimal results with an unpopular strategy.
• Generalization—Shifting focus from specific issues to more general ones may
increase strategists’ options for gaining organizational commitment.
• Focus on Higher-Order Issues—By raising an issue to a higher level, many short-
term interests can be postponed in favor of long-term interests. For instance, by
focusing on issues of survival, the airline and automotive industries were able to
persuade unions to make concessions on wage increases.
• Provide Political Access on Important Issues—Strategy and policy decisions with
significant negative consequences for middle managers will motivate intervention
behavior from them. If middle managers do not have an opportunity to take a
position on such decisions in appropriate political forums, they are capable of
successfully resisting the decisions after they are made. Providing such political
access provides strategists with information that otherwise might not be available
and that could be useful in managing intervention behavior. 10