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20 PART 1 • OVERVIEW OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

implementation and evaluation, not through the plan. A technically imperfect plan
that is implemented well will achieve more than the perfect plan that never gets off
the paper on which it is typed. 21

Strategic management must not become a self-perpetuating bureaucratic mechanism.
Rather, it must be a self-reflective learning process that familiarizes managers and employees
in the organization with key strategic issues and feasible alternatives for resolving those
issues. Strategic management must not become ritualistic, stilted, orchestrated, or too formal,
predictable, and rigid. Words supported by numbers, rather than numbers supported by
words, should represent the medium for explaining strategic issues and organizational
responses. A key role of strategists is to facilitate continuous organizational learning
and change.
R. T. Lenz offered some important guidelines for effective strategic management:

Keep the strategic-management process as simple and nonroutine as possible.
Eliminate jargon and arcane planning language. Remember, strategic management is
a process for fostering learning and action, not merely a formal system for control.
To avoid routinized behavior, vary assignments, team membership, meeting formats,
and the planning calendar. The process should not be totally predictable, and settings
must be changed to stimulate creativity. Emphasize word-oriented plans with num-
bers as back-up material. If managers cannot express their strategy in a paragraph or
so, they either do not have one or do not understand it. Stimulate thinking and action
that challenge the assumptions underlying current corporate strategy. Welcome bad
news. If strategy is not working, managers desperately need to know it. Further, no
pertinent information should be classified as inadmissible merely because it cannot
be quantified. Build a corporate culture in which the role of strategic management
and its essential purposes are understood. Do not permit “technicians” to co-opt the
process. It is ultimately a process for learning and action. Speak of it in these terms.
Attend to psychological, social, and political dimensions, as well as the information
infrastructure and administrative procedures supporting it. 22

An important guideline for effective strategic management is open-mindedness. A
willingness and eagerness to consider new information, new viewpoints, new ideas, and
new possibilities is essential; all organizational members must share a spirit of inquiry
and learning. Strategists such as chief executive officers, presidents, owners of small
businesses, and heads of government agencies must commit themselves to listen to and
understand managers’ positions well enough to be able to restate those positions to the
managers’ satisfaction. In addition, managers and employees throughout the firm should
be able to describe the strategists’ positions to the satisfaction of the strategists. This
degree of discipline will promote understanding and learning.
No organization has unlimited resources. No firm can take on an unlimited amount of
debt or issue an unlimited amount of stock to raise capital. Therefore, no organization can
pursue all the strategies that potentially could benefit the firm. Strategic decisions thus
always have to be made to eliminate some courses of action and to allocate organizational
resources among others. Most organizations can afford to pursue only a few corporate-
level strategies at any given time. It is a critical mistake for managers to pursue too many
strategies at the same time, thereby spreading the firm’s resources so thin that all strategies
are jeopardized. Joseph Charyk, CEO of the Communication Satellite Corporation
(Comsat), said, “We have to face the cold fact that Comsat may not be able to do all it
wants. We must make hard choices on which ventures to keep and which to fold.”
Strategic decisions require trade-offs such as long-range versus short-range consider-
ations or maximizing profits versus increasing shareholders’ wealth. There are ethics
issues too. Strategy trade-offs require subjective judgments and preferences. In many
cases, a lack of objectivity in formulating strategy results in a loss of competitive posture
and profitability. Most organizations today recognize that strategic-management concepts
and techniques can enhance the effectiveness of decisions. Subjective factors such as
attitudes toward risk, concern for social responsibility, and organizational culture will