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developed indices measuring the sustainable development of Chinese cities.
First, the Urban China Initiative, affiliated to McKinsey Global Institute,
produced a 2011 and a 2013 Urban Sustainability Index for Chinese cities, in
which “urban sustainability” was measured by social, economic, environ-
2
mental, and resource-related categories of sustainability. In both the 2011 and
2013 Indices, each of which reviewed over 100 Chinese cities, coastal cities
outperformed central and western cities, in that order. Aside from coastal
location, the highest scoring cities had the largest urban population and pop-
ulation density, the highest foreign direct investment and GDP per capita, and
the highest percentage of migrant population. Beijing and Zhuhai ranked #1
overall in the 2011 and 2013 Index, respectively (McKinsey, 2012, 2014).
Second, in China’s Green Development Index Report, “green develop-
3
ment” is measured using a range of economic and environmental indicators in
which a higher score reflects a better balance between economic development,
natural resources, and the environment than the overall averagedfor example,
lower pollution, more green space, and a higher rate of economic growth.
Shenzhen held the top rank, with Beijing and Zhuhai as nearby contenders. As
with McKinsey’s Urban Sustainability Index, the regional distribution of
“green development” in the Green Development Indices was the highest in the
coastal region, middle in the central region, and the lowest in the western
regions (Li and Pan, 2011, 2012).

DUELING INVESTMENTS

As shown in Fig. 16.1, Anhui maintained a substantial regional lead in domestic
investment from the early 2000s until 2011, when Anhui’s investment falls to
just above the levels of its nearest two competitors, which Ang (2017) explains
is because since 2011, Anhui counted only domestic investment projects at or
above 100 million RMB in its statistics. Even so, from 2011 forward, Anhui still
4
maintained the regional lead in domestic investment. Anhui Province’s regional
lead in beyond-province investment is more likely due to geographic than
motivational factors, being that by comparison with the other central provinces

2. These included measures of per capita government expenditure on education and health care
(social), per capita government investment in R&D and the Gini coefficient (economic),
emissions and treatment of air pollution, wastewater and waste (environment), and energy
consumption per unit GDP and per capita.
3. Including but not limited to per capita and per unit of land area measures of GDP, emissions and
treatment of air and water pollution, water and energy resource consumption, ratio of nonfossil
energy consumption to total energy consumption, green space in urban areas and government
expenditure on science, education, and health.
4. Annual provincial government work reports were used to extract these data. For example, Guo,
G. (Governor), January 8, 2012. 2012 Henan provincial government work report (2012 nian
Henan sheng zhengfu gongzuo baogao). In: Fifth Session of the Eleventh People’s Congress of
Henan Province.