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124 Part 2 • InformatIon requIrements analysIs

people. An analyst can use an interview to develop a relationship with a client, to observe the workplace,
and to collect data. Interviews should preferably be conducted in person.
The five steps to take in planning an interview are to read background material, establish inter-
viewing objectives, decide who to interview, prepare the interviewee, and decide on question types and
structure.
Questions are of two basic types: open ended or closed. Open-ended questions leave open all re-
sponse options for the interviewee. Closed questions limit the possible options for response. Probes or
follow-up questions can be either open ended or closed, but either way, they ask the respondent for a
more detailed reply.
Interviews can be structured in three basic ways: pyramid, funnel, or diamond. Pyramid structures
begin with detailed, closed questions and broaden to more generalized questions. Funnel structures
begin with open-ended, general questions and then funnel down to more specific, closed questions.
Diamond-shaped structures combine the strengths of the other two structures, but they take longer to
conduct. Trade-offs are involved when deciding how structured to make interview questions and ques-
tion sequences. Listening to user stories is another way to collect valuable information.
To cut both the time and cost of personal interviews, analysts may want to consider joint application
design (JAD) instead. Using JAD, analysts can both analyze human information requirements and design a
user interface with users in a group setting. Careful assessment of the particular organizational culture will
help an analyst judge whether JAD is suitable.
By using questionnaires (surveys), systems analysts can gather data on HCI concerns, attitudes, be-
liefs, behavior, and characteristics from key people in the organization. Surveys are useful if people in the
organization are widely dispersed, if many people are involved with the systems project, if exploratory work
is necessary before recommending alternatives, and if there is a need for problem sensing before interviews
are conducted.
Once objectives for the survey are set, the analyst can begin writing either open-ended or closed ques-
tions. Ideally, the questions should be simple, specific, short, free of bias, not patronizing, technically ac-
curate, addressed to those who are knowledgeable, and written at an appropriate reading level. The systems
analyst may want to use scales either to measure the attitudes or characteristics of respondents or to have
respondents act as judges for the subject of the questionnaire. Scaling is the process of assigning numbers
or other symbols to an attribute or characteristic.
Consistent control of the questionnaire format and style can result in a better response rate. Web sur-
veys can be designed to encourage consistent responses. In addition, the meaningful ordering and clustering
of questions is important for helping respondents understand the questionnaire. Surveys can be adminis-
tered in a variety of ways, including electronically via email or the Web, or with the analyst present in a
group of users. Software is available to automatically tabulate email or Web responses.

Keywords and Phrases
bipolar closed questions interviewee opinions
central tendency joint application design (JAD)
closed questions leniency
diamond-shaped structure nominal scale
funnel structure open-ended questions
halo effect probes
human–computer interaction (HCI) pyramid structure
informal procedures questionnaire
interval scale reliability
interviewee feelings storytelling survey respondents
interviewee goals validity

Review Questions

1. What kinds of information should be sought in interviews?
2. List the five steps in interview preparation.
3 Define what is meant by open-ended interview questions. List eight benefits and five drawbacks of
using them.
4. When are open-ended questions appropriate for use in interviewing?
5. Define what is meant by closed interview questions. List six benefits and four drawbacks of using
them.
6. When are closed questions appropriate for use in interviewing?