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THE CNN EFFECT IN ACTION
For Robinson, policy uncertainty is defined as a function of the
degree of consensus and coordination between governmental execu-
tive subsystems (such as the U.S. State Department, Department of
Defense, and the White House) with respect to an issue. When there
is no policy, or an inconsistent, undecided or wavering policy between
these subsystems on an issue, then it is assumed that policy uncertainty
exists. If there is agreement and cooperation between the executive’s
subsystems, then there is policy certainty. In seeking to identify the
degree of policy certainty between subsystems on an issue, Robinson
reviews press statements and releases a variety of secondary sources
and conducts primary interviews with decision-makers from different
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government departments.
The second important element necessary in the policy-media
interaction model for a CNN effect is sympathetic framing that creates
emotional proximity, focusing on the victims of a crisis in need of out-
side help. This type of framing can be accompanied by strong criticism
of policy and policymakers, if they have not committed to a policy of
intervention. Sympathetic framing is contrasted with distance fram-
ing, which is a style of coverage that creates emotional distance
between the audience and the suffering, often referring to “ancient
ethnic hatreds” with no clear victims, and giving an impression that
the situation is beyond repair. 41 In identifying media framing,
Robinson uses both interpretive and keyword analysis. Keyword
analysis involves reviewing and quantifying empathy versus distance
and critical versus supportive framing from key media sources. 42 If
media framing is empathetic and critical (and there is policy uncer-
tainty regarding military intervention), then a CNN effect is possible;
if framing is distancing and supportive of a government set on a policy
of nonintervention, then there is no possibility for a CNN effect. 43
Robinson’s model, in line with the indexing hypothesis, also places
emphasis on the role of elite consensus, suggesting that media criticism
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is unlikely when the elite are united on an issue. By bringing this fac-
tor into the equation, a third condition on the possibility of the CNN
effect—besides policy uncertainty and sympathetic media framing— is
introduced. This condition also has the additional benefit of creating a
synthesis between indexing and manufacturing consent theories, on
the one hand, and theories advocating independent media power, on
the other, allowing “us to make sense of both arguments.” 45
Amongst the number of CNN and other media effects that are
alleged to exist, the policy-media interaction model is primarily
designed to identify the strong CNN effect, which can be claimed
when “media reports help drive or push policymakers down a