Page 21 - CULTURE IN THE COMMUNICATION AGE

EDWARD C. STEWART

interaction by defining culture as ‘meaning’. Finally, I will make a brief sketch
of what I call the ‘Cultural Trilogy’, a framework for understanding and
theorizing culture that embraces individual, social, and primordial elements.
Underlying the entire chapter is a distinct emphasis on the importance of
emotion in culture and cultural theory.

Emergence of modern humans
Two subspecies of modern humans lived in Europe during the last Ice Age,
beginning about 110,000 years ago. The Neanderthals (Homo sapiens neander-
thalensis) lived in Europe and the Middle East from around 120,000 years ago.
The second subspecies of fully modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) left fossil
remains in Africa which date to slightly more than 100,000 years ago. Very
soon afterward, modern humans appeared in Israel, where they were in contact
with the Neanderthal. Between 35,000 and 45,000 years ago fully modern
humans spread throughout Europe and also came in contact with the Neander-
thals. As the Ice Age entered its coldest phase, Homo sapiens sapiens, in a swift
and decisive transition, completely replaced the Neanderthals. Reasons for
Neanderthal extinction remain unclear (Scarre 1993: 43, 49).
During the Ice Age wild game animals were plentiful. Steppe bison, wild
goats, and wild ox among other herd animals existed in great numbers and
were effectively hunted. Groups of drivers composed of men, women, and
children drove animals over cliffs to their deaths and then stripped the carcasses
to the bones. In other cases, the animals were ambushed or driven into enclosed
places where they were slaughtered. Around 15,000 , the world gradually
began to warm, changing the environment and bringing the last Ice Age to a
close around 8000 . Earth’s terrain was no longer habitable for some species
of animals. Other animal groups were destroyed by over-hunting as human
populations began to grow in warmer climates throughout the world.
By 12,000 , at the end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the Mesolithic
epoch, the supply of large game animals had declined in many parts of the
world. It became less possible for men and women to drive a herd of animals
over a cliff or to surround and drive them into a cul-de-sac. Hunters had to
track individual animals and kill them one by one (Ehrenreich 1997: 110).
Consequently, the cunning and efficiency of individual hunters in stalking the
prey became very important. During the same period of time, wars and warlike
raids took place. Finally, between 12,000 and 8000 , a third change
developed. The first ‘arms revolution’ consisted of the production of the bow
and arrow, the sling and dagger, and the newly invented spear and knife. First
used for hunting animals, these weapons were later converted into arms for war
(Ehrenreich 1997: 117–25).

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