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MILITARY PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS 239

forms of peacekeeping were initiated to deal international communications, and political
with conflicts still ongoing. These conflicts arrangements that were necessary for the
did not always involve conventional military development of a world community, but
forces acting as agents of states, and some- failed to incorporate a realistic understanding
times were internal to states or reflected of the role of the military in constructive
states in the process of failing. These international relations, with the military
‘second-generation’ (Mackinley and Chopra, moving in the direction of becoming a police-
1993), or ‘strategic’ (Dandeker and Gow, type organization, eventually becoming
1997) peacekeeping operations involved smaller, and changing its pattern of activity in
larger peacekeeping forces, and more exten- a constabulary direction, with the United
sive use of force in achieving or keeping the Nations (first-generation) peacekeeping oper-
peace. In addition, they involved national ations serving as an example of constabulary
participants that had previously been military forces (Janowitz, 1968: 32–3).
excluded by the bipolar tensions of the Cold Janowitz had not postulated that constabu-
War and the UN peacekeeping norms of min- lary operations would be limited to first-
imum use of force, impartiality, and host generation peacekeeping, and in fact sug-
country consent, or had been limited by con- gested that the pragmatic constabulary orien-
stitutional constraints against out-of-area tation was appropriate across the entire
operations or by the tendency to exclude the spectrum of conflict intensity. Recent theoriz-
armed forces of less developed nations. The ing has in fact focused on a differentiation of
United States and the Soviet Union had not types of second-generation missions.
been perceived as disinterested third parties Dandeker (1999) in particular has built upon
in international conflicts, and had demon- and modified Dobbie’s (1994) critique of the
strated their resistance to the principle of failure of twentieth century peacekeeping
minimum use of force in favor of doctrines doctrine, which distinguishes between peace-
that varied between proportional use of force keeping and peace enforcement. The former
and overwhelming use of force. includes first-generation type interposition
missions, as well as strategic peacekeeping
which may involve the use of force, but in
Dobbie’s view abides by the traditional peace-
CHANGING NORMS OF keeping norm of consent. The latter, for
PEACEKEEPING Dobbie, dispenses with the consent norm, and
more closely resembles traditional military
The changes that have taken place in the operations, including the identification of an
twenty-first century with regard to the norms enemy. In first-generation missions, the con-
of use of force, impartiality, and host nation flict is the enemy, and the peacekeepers are
consent have implications for theories allied with the principal parties to the conflict
regarding whether armed forces have a role in defeating it. Operation Desert Storm (the
in the pursuit of world peace, as well as first Gulf War) after the invasion of Kuwait by
implications for theories regarding what that Iraq would be an example of peace enforce-
role might be. Wright (1965: 1310), in the ment. Dandeker and Gow (1997) suggest that
idealistic tradition of Comte and Spencer, strategic peacekeeping need not have the con-
suggested that military attempts to prevent sent of the conflicting parties, but must be
war would not be successful, but rather that regarded as legitimate in terms of the legal and
simultaneous attacks on war would have to normative basis of the mission, the support of
be made on educational, social, political, and a wide range of parties, and the degree to
legal fronts. Janowitz (1968: 30) argued that which performance of the mission generates
such a model of controlling conflict recognized further support for the mission, as well as
the basic issues of economic development, for its perceived legal and normative basis.