Page 271 - The ISA Handbook in Contemporary Sociology

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242 THE ISA HANDBOOK IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY

the soaring numbers and intensity of peace- Dandeker (1999) suggests that adaptability
keeping operations in the post-Cold War to peacekeeping missions varies as a function
period (Lebovic, 2004). As peace-keeping of national histories and military ethos.
operations increasingly opened to wider He proposed two types of societies: ‘soci-
participation, traditional participants in peace- eties with a pronounced war-fighting ethos’
keeping, in turn, were required to assert, and (e.g., the United States), and ‘societies with a
in some cases change, their own roles in the moderate war-fighting/national defense-
context of changing peacekeeping norms. centered ethos’ (e.g., Sweden). We now sug-
An additional dimension of ‘new partici- gest that there should be a third type: soci-
pation’ in peacekeeping has emerged as a eties with a pacifist/national defense-centered
result of the downsizing of military forces ethos (e.g., Japan). These three types raise
around the world (Segal and Babin, 2000). different issues with regard to peacekeeping
Activities that were previously performed by participation, and the issues change as a func-
regular military personnel are increasingly tion of the differences between first-genera-
turned over to supplementary personnel. tion peacekeeping, strategic peacekeeping,
Sometimes these are reserve military person- and peace enforcement.
nel mobilized for peacekeeping missions After the end of the Cold War in Europe,
(e.g., Segal and Tiggle, 1997), and some- major Western powers increasingly came to
times they are civilians, some of whom serve participate in peace operations, as Cold
under contract to perform activities that had War era peacekeeping doctrines that restricted
previously been performed by military per- their involvement disappeared. Those states
sonnel, but are now outsourced by the mili- whose military cultures are built upon a
tary (Moskos, 2003: 6–7), and others as civil warrior ethos find they have to shift to a more
servants employed by military forces. Thus, constabulary orientation in order to effec-
the groups involved in twenty-first century tively execute traditional peacekeeping or
peace operations include military personnel lower-end strategic peacekeeping missions,
from the middle powers that were the and they encounter organizational resistance
traditional ‘first-generation’ peacekeepers; along the way. For example, Dandeker
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), (2000: 32–3) notes that participating in UN
such as the International Red Cross and peace and stability operations is a third mis-
Doctors without Borders, that have been regu- sion option for the British forces, after ensur-
lar participants in humanitarian operations; ing the peace and protection of the United
military forces from major powers whose par- Kingdom and ensuring against threats to the
ticipation was limited by the norms of first- Kingdom. Similarly, Boene and Martin
generation peacekeeping; and military forces (2000: 59) note that the Chirac administra-
from nations that had previously restricted tion’s defense policy made the French mili-
their roles to homeland or regional alliance tary more similar to the British or US model,
defense, but who now are expected by although they note that ‘Paradoxically, this ...
the international community to make a has caused an enlargement and deepening of
burden-sharing contribution to collective the constabulary trends that emerged in the
security. Moreover, these various military late phase of the East–West standoff’.
forces may be comprised of regular soldiers The United States, like the United
or reservists, with widely varying levels of Kingdom, especially since the late 1990s, is
training and preparation for peace opera- one of the relatively few nations in the world
tions, and they are likely to be supported with an expeditionary military culture. While
in the field by civilian employees and most nations regard their armed forces as
contracted civilian personnel. Our current supporting homeland defense, contributing
analysis focuses on nations represented by to domestic social control, and symbolizing
regular armed forces in peacekeeping. sovereignty, the United States and the