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11





                 An Overview of Hybrid


                 Organic–Inorganic Metal Halide


                 Perovskite Solar Cells




                                                  Khagendra P. Bhandari, Randy J. Ellingson
                                  CENTER FOR PHOTOVOLTAICS INNOVATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION,
                                                 UNIVERSITY OF TOLEDO, TOLEDO, OH, UNITED STATES
                                                                 Khagendra.bhandari@rockets.utoledo.edu



                 11.1  Introduction

                 Solar generated electricity is the world’s fasted growing renewable energy with net solar gen-
                 eration increasing by an average of 8.3% per year [1]. The highest growth rates have been
                 noted in China, followed by Japan, and USA in second and the third place, followed by three
                 European counties such as United Kingdom (fourth), Germany (fifth), and France (sixth) [2].
                 Seven commercial technologies make up 98% of the current world market share with the thin
                 film industry making up only about 13% of the total. However, the growth in thin film indus-
                 try is faster than that in the crystalline silicon industry [3–5]. This 13% market share is divided
                 into several established and emerging PV technologies including polycrystalline CdTe thin
                 films, CIGS, amorphous silicon, organic, dye-sensitive, and quantum dots solar cells. To in-
                 crease the market share, alternative technologies have to provide a desirable combination of
                 high power conversion efficiency, low manufacturing costs, and excellent stability. Recent-
                 ly developed hybrid organic–inorganic metal halide perovskite, methylammonium halide
                 perovskite CH 3 NH 3 MX 3  or MAMX 3 (MA = CH 3 NH 3 , M = Pb or Sn, X = Cl, Br, and I) or simply
                 perovskite, solar cells have a great potential to become one of the leading technologies in PV
                 industry due to their high efficiency and low manufacturing costs. As a result of intensive re-
                 search efforts across the world over the past 8 years, perovskite-based solar cell performances
                 are now comparable to silicon-based solar cells, at least at the laboratory scale [6–8].
                   German mineralogist Gustav Rose discovered calcium titanate, also known as calcium
                 titanium oxide (CaTiO 3 ), in 1839. As a mineral, it is called perovskite, named after Rus-
                 sian mineralogist, Lev A. Perovski (1792–856) [9]. In hybrid organic–inorganic metal halide
                                                +
                 perovskite (CH 3 NH 3 MX 3 ), CH 3 NH 3  is an organic cation, M is a divalent metal cation (Pb
                                                                                                2+
                                                             −1
                                                                  −1
                                                                        −1
                     2+
                 or Sn ), and X is a monovalent halide anion (Cl , Br , or I ). Because of their excel-
                 lent optoelectronic properties and potential solution-processed synthesis [10–12], these
                 materials have been studied with the aim of developing new materials for organic light
                 A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Energy Systems. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811479-7.00011-7  233
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