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11
An Overview of Hybrid
Organic–Inorganic Metal Halide
Perovskite Solar Cells
Khagendra P. Bhandari, Randy J. Ellingson
CENTER FOR PHOTOVOLTAICS INNOVATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION,
UNIVERSITY OF TOLEDO, TOLEDO, OH, UNITED STATES
Khagendra.bhandari@rockets.utoledo.edu
11.1 Introduction
Solar generated electricity is the world’s fasted growing renewable energy with net solar gen-
eration increasing by an average of 8.3% per year [1]. The highest growth rates have been
noted in China, followed by Japan, and USA in second and the third place, followed by three
European counties such as United Kingdom (fourth), Germany (fifth), and France (sixth) [2].
Seven commercial technologies make up 98% of the current world market share with the thin
film industry making up only about 13% of the total. However, the growth in thin film indus-
try is faster than that in the crystalline silicon industry [3–5]. This 13% market share is divided
into several established and emerging PV technologies including polycrystalline CdTe thin
films, CIGS, amorphous silicon, organic, dye-sensitive, and quantum dots solar cells. To in-
crease the market share, alternative technologies have to provide a desirable combination of
high power conversion efficiency, low manufacturing costs, and excellent stability. Recent-
ly developed hybrid organic–inorganic metal halide perovskite, methylammonium halide
perovskite CH 3 NH 3 MX 3 or MAMX 3 (MA = CH 3 NH 3 , M = Pb or Sn, X = Cl, Br, and I) or simply
perovskite, solar cells have a great potential to become one of the leading technologies in PV
industry due to their high efficiency and low manufacturing costs. As a result of intensive re-
search efforts across the world over the past 8 years, perovskite-based solar cell performances
are now comparable to silicon-based solar cells, at least at the laboratory scale [6–8].
German mineralogist Gustav Rose discovered calcium titanate, also known as calcium
titanium oxide (CaTiO 3 ), in 1839. As a mineral, it is called perovskite, named after Rus-
sian mineralogist, Lev A. Perovski (1792–856) [9]. In hybrid organic–inorganic metal halide
+
perovskite (CH 3 NH 3 MX 3 ), CH 3 NH 3 is an organic cation, M is a divalent metal cation (Pb
2+
−1
−1
−1
2+
or Sn ), and X is a monovalent halide anion (Cl , Br , or I ). Because of their excel-
lent optoelectronic properties and potential solution-processed synthesis [10–12], these
materials have been studied with the aim of developing new materials for organic light
A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Energy Systems. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811479-7.00011-7 233
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