Page 89 - Advances in Eco-Fuels for a Sustainable Environment

Prospects of biodiesel feedstock as an effective ecofuel source and their challenges 63

pharmaceuticals (as vehicles for drug delivery), insecticides, and paints and varnishes.
However, all these uses are comparatively insignificant in terms of the quantities
used [27].
The fuel properties of sesame biodiesel as shown in Table 3.6 meet the specifica-
tion of ASTM. Engine fueling with sesame biodiesel and its blend (B20%, B10%,
and B5%) in terms of fuel consumption, efficiency, and power output appear to have
equaled the performance compared to mineral diesel. There is no obvious change in
engine power output even at 100% biodiesel [27]. Environmental performance of
sesame biodiesel was superior to that of mineral diesel.

3.2.1.3 Hazelnut
Hazelnuts are a global crop. The European hazel (Corylus avellana) is the primary
cultivated species and is suited to temperate and Mediterranean climates of semiarid
and humid conditions. Hybrid and neohybrid hazes are gaining increasing importance.
They contain 16%–20% protein and 54%–64% oil and are used fresh in pastries and
desserts and for a high-quality edible oil [24]. Yields can be as high as 2.5–3.5tonnes
per hectare of fresh, in-shell nuts (1.0–1.4tonnes per hectare of dry deshelled nuts)
[24]. The more cold-hardy neohybrid hazels yield 1.6tonnes per hectare of fresh,
in-shell nuts (0.7tonnes per hectare dry deshelled nuts) [24]. It yields consistently
every year.

3.2.1.4 Almond (Prunus dulcis)
Almonds are a global crop that was cultivated as early as 4000BC in Central Asia.
>50% of global cultivation of almonds is in the United States in California in indus-
trial monocultures. Almond nuts contains 16%–21% protein and 50%–54% fat and are
consumed raw and roasted and in desserts and baked goods. Bitter varieties are grown
for their edible oil. Average global average yield of almonds is 0.5tonnes per hectare
of dry clean kernels, but under the highly intensive California production system, it
can be as high as 6.7tonnes per hectare of clean kernels (6.4tonnes per hectare dry
weight kernels) [24].

3.2.1.5 Olive
Olive (Olea europaea) cultivation began as early as 4000BC and was domesticated in
the Mediterranean. It thrives well in similar climates in Chile, Australia, South Africa,
and California. The subspecies O. europaea spp. Cuspidate ranges throughout tropical
Africa and east as far as China. Some varieties handle warm temperate winters of
12°C while others fruit in humid subtropical conditions. Olive is the global standard
for quality edible oils. Olive fruits contain 20%–30% oil and 1.3%–1.5% protein [24].
Most olives are pressed for oil. Raw olives are inedible but through soaking in brine,
alkali, or other solutions, they become edible and delicious [24]. Yields of olive fruit
range from 1 to 10tonnes per hectare (0.4–3.6tonnes per hectare dry flesh). About
one-fifth of the fruit becomes oil with a global average of 350–400kg per hectare
of oil produced.