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Biofuel transitions 37

Motor Vehicles (E10) (GB 18351), Biodiesel Blend Stock (BD100) for Die-
sel Engine Fuels (GBT 20828), and Biodiesel Fuel Blend (B5) (GBT 25199).
These standards are frequently updated over time (Hao et al., 2018, p. 649).

4.3.2 India
The drivers for Indian biofuels policy include, among others, energy secu-
rity, employment for rural population, reduction of poverty, rehabilitation
of “waste lands,” and tackling CO 2 emissions. At the same time, due to the
limited area for energy crops, growing population and greatest number of
undernourished people, and the threat to food security, the Government
of India has promoted cultivations of nonedible energy crops (e.g., Jatropha
curcas) on so-called wastelands, that is degraded and underutilized land
(Chaliganti and M€uller, 2016; Murali et al., 2016).
The National Biofuel Policy established the indicative target of 20%
blending for biofuels (both bioethanol and biodiesel; Kataki et al., 2017).
In 2013 after introducing mandatory blending quotas for bioethanol in a
limited number of states and territories, the Government of India mandated
a 5% quota of blending for ethanol in the whole country. Two additional
mechanisms named “Minimum Support Price of non-edible oil seeds”
and “Minimum Purchase Price for bioethanol and biodiesel” were also
adopted (Murali et al., 2016, p. 449). However, as argued by Beckman
et al. (2018, p. 260) “actual blending has never reached the targeted rate
because of inadequate domestic supplies, inadequate price incentives for eth-
anol producers and blenders, and a requirement that fuel ethanol, as opposed
to ethanol destined for industrial or chemical use, be supplied from domestic
sources.”

4.3.3 Brazil
Brazilian biofuels support scheme goes back to interwar period when a man-
datory blending level of bioethanol and petrol, as well as financial instru-
ments was introduced. Challenging the excess of sugar stock and
economic depression, an obligatory level of bioethanol blending for petrol
importers was introduced at 5% level by federal decree in 1931. Moreover,
tax exemption for blended ethanol, duty exemption for anhydrous ethanol
production and distillation machineries, and higher taxes on vehicles with
low-compression internal combustion engines were also introduced by
the same decree. In the same year, the “Study Commission on the Ethanol
Engine” and the “Commission for Defense of Sugar Production” were cre-
ated and in 1933 were merged into the “Sugar and Ethanol Institute” aimed