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ends. See Jean-Luc Renaud, 'The Role of the International Telecommu-
nications Union: Conflict, Resolution and the Industrialized Countries,'
in Kenneth Dyson and Peter Humphreys (eds), The Political Economy of
Communications (London: Routledge, 1990) p. 38.
22 Although the ITU bas no enforcement mechanism, its regulations have
enjoyed a remarkable history of near-universal acceptance. In large part,
this has been due to the ability of the Union both to arbitrate conflict and
to modify the intellectual framework within which conflicts take place.
Because ITU membership is conditional on membership of the UN,
expulsion from the UN can be used as a significant sanction against
non-compliance. At least one legal scholar has argued that 'the growing
and often inescapable dependence of states on participation in activities
of global and indivisible concern, where the principle sanction is exclu-
sion from participation of those states that refuse to comply with uni-
versally accepted standards' probably constitutes a sufficient although an
as yet untested enforcement mechanism for international organizations
such as the ITU. See Charles Henry Alexandrowicz, The lAw of Global
Communications (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971) p. 157.
More fundamentally, Marika Natasha Taishoff argues that

'since all countries' interests are best served by consultation and coordi-
nation in order to avoid interference, the ITU's efforts have frequently
been fruitful. The more intractable problem resides not in the ITU and
its powers, or lack thereof, but in the state of the art of technological
developments.' (Taishoff, State Responsibility and the Direct Broadcast
Satellite [London: Francis Pinter, 1987] p. 160)
23 Recent developments in the European Union, for instance, and interna-
tional trade agreements have explicitly limited sovereignty and have
established enforceable controls over nation states in relation to foreign
communications.
24 Article 29 contains three points: first, 'Everyone has duties to the com-
munity in which alone the free and full development of his personality is
possible'; second, 'In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone
shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely
for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights
and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of mor-
ality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society'; and
third, 'These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary
to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.'
25 Leo Gross, 'Some International Law Aspects of the Freedom of
Information and the Right to Communicate', pp. 201-2.
26 General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI) of 1961 in Official Records,
Supplement No.l7, UN Doc. A/5100 (1961).
27 General Assembly Resolution 1963 (XVIIT) of 1962 in Official Records,
Supplement No.l5, UN Doc. A/5515 (1963).
28 M. Lesueur Stewart, To See the World, the Global Dimension in Inter-
national Direct Television Broadcasting by Satellite (Dordrecht: Marti-
nus Nijhoff Publishers, 1991) p. 11.