Page 181 - Control Theory in Biomedical Engineering

166 Control theory in biomedical engineering

motion in a changing environment can be realized with several strategies
and schemes for position and force control (Hogan, 1985a,b,c; Pierrot
et al., 1999; Duchemin et al., 2005; Cortesa ˜o et al., 2006; Zarrad et al.,
2007a,b; Mehdi and Boubaker, 2010, 2011a, b, 2012a, b, c, 2013, 2015,
2016; Amirkhani et al., 2019). Different methods are also presented to over-
come the physical limitations of instrument sensorization to meet safety
requirements (Katsura et al., 2005; Trejos et al., 2010; Haidegger et al.,
2009; Joubair et al., 2016; Enayati et al., 2016),(Yang et al., 2018; Guo
et al., 2019; Mobayen et al., 2019).
As important as the sterilization of the parts that are in direct contact with
the patient is, cost is also an important factor that should be given careful
consideration (Daneshmand et al., 2017).

5 Robot-assisted surgery
5.1 History

Robotic surgery has undergone a profound revolution in the past 35 years
and the history of its evolution is described in many articles (Cleary and
Nguyen, 2001; Taylor and Stoianovici, 2003; Hockstein et al., 2007; Kalan
et al., 2010; Dogangil et al., 2010; Pugin et al., 2011; Valero et al., 2011;
Lee-Kong and Feingold, 2013; Hussain et al., 2014; Shah et al., 2015; Leal
Ghezzi and Campos Corleta, 2016; Lane, 2018; Marino et al., 2018; George
et al., 2018).
Actually, the general idea of telerobotic healthcare was born in the early
1970s. It was proposed by NASA to provide surgical care for astronauts.
However, the first prototypes were built 15 years later, in the late 1980s,
when multiple academic centers started developing new prototypes.
According to (Bogue, 2011), the world’s first surgical robot was the
“Arthrobot” developed in Vancouver, Canada in 1983. It was able to posi-
tion a patient’s leg based on a voice command. In 1984, it was used in
an orthopedic surgical procedure. Since then, numerous products have been
developed and the best known today is the da Vinci Surgical System pro-
duced by Intuitive Surgical, Inc.
As reported by Hockstein et al. (2007), the first surgical application was
described in 1985 when an industrial robotic arm, the PUMA 200 produced
by Unimation Limited, was modified to perform a stereotactic brain biopsy
with 0.05mm accuracy. Among the Programmable Universal Machines for
Assembly, the PUMA 560 was used then for neuro-stereoctatic surgery and
was the first robot-assisted surgical procedure reported in the literature