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112 Chapter 6 Structuralism and post-structuralism

‘son’, etc. For example, traffic lights operate within a system of four signs: red = stop,
green = go, amber = prepare for red, amber and red = prepare for green. The relation-
ship between the signifier ‘green’ and the signified ‘go’ is arbitrary; there is nothing in
the colour green that naturally attaches it to the verb ‘go’. Traffic lights would work
equally well if red signified ‘go’ and green signified ‘stop’. The system works not by
expressing a natural meaning but by marking a difference, a distinction within a system
of difference and relationships. To make the point about meaning being relational
rather than substantial, Saussure gives the example of train systems. The 12.11 from
Bochum to Bremen, for instance, runs every day at the same time. To each of these
trains we assign the same identity (‘the 12.11 from Bochum to Bremen’). However, we
know that the locomotive, the carriages, the staff, are unlikely to be the same each day.
The identity of the train is not fixed by its substance, but by its relational distinction
from other trains, running at other times, on other routes. Saussure’s other example is
the game of chess. A knight, for example, could be represented in any way a designer
thought desirable, provided that how it was represented marked it as different from the
other chess pieces.
According to Saussure, meaning is also made in a process of combination and selec-
tion, horizontally along the syntagmatic axis, and vertically along the paradigmatic
axis. For example, the sentence, ‘Miriam made chicken broth today’, is meaningful
through the accumulation of its different parts: Miriam/made/chicken broth/today.
Its meaning is only complete once the final word is spoken or inscribed. Saussure calls
this process the syntagmatic axis of language. One can add other parts to extend its
meaningfulness: ‘Miriam made chicken broth today while dreaming about her lover.’
Meaning is thus accumulated along the syntagmatic axis of language. This is perfectly
clear when a sentence is interrupted. For example, ‘I was going to say that . . .’; ‘It is
clear to me that Luie should . . .’; ‘You promised to tell me about . . .’.
Substituting certain parts of the sentence for new parts can also change meaning. For
example, I could write, ‘Miriam made salad today while dreaming about her lover’ or
‘Miriam made chicken broth today while dreaming about her new car’. Such substitu-
tions are said to be operating along the paradigmatic axis of language. Let us consider
a more politically charged example. ‘Terrorists carried out an attack on an army base
today.’ Substitutions from the paradigmatic axis could alter the meaning of this sen-
tence considerably. If we substitute ‘freedom fighters’ or ‘anti-imperialist volunteers’ for
the word ‘terrorists’ we would have a sentence meaningful in quite a different way. This
would be achieved without any reference to a corresponding reality outside of the
sentence itself. The meaning of the sentence is produced through a process of selection
and combination. This is because the relationship between ‘sign’ and ‘referent’ (in our
earlier example, real dogs in the real world) is also arbitrary. It follows, therefore, that
the language we speak does not simply reflect the material reality of the world; rather,
by providing us with a conceptual map with which to impose a certain order on what
we see and experience, the language we speak plays a significant role in shaping what
constitutes for us the reality of the material world.
Structuralists argue that language organizes and constructs our sense of reality – dif-
ferent languages in effect produce different mappings of the real. When, for example, a