Page 129 - Cultural Theory and Popular Culture an Introduction

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Ferdinand de Saussure 113

European gazes at a snowscape, he or she sees snow. An Inuit, with over fifty words to
describe snow, looking at the same snowscape would presumably see so much more.
Therefore an Inuit and a European standing together surveying the snowscape would
in fact be seeing two quite different conceptual scenes. Similarly, Australian Aborigines
have many words to describe the desert. What these examples demonstrate to a struc-
turalist is that the way we conceptualize the world is ultimately dependent on the
language we speak. And by analogy, it will depend on the culture we inhabit. The
meanings made possible by language are thus the result of the interplay of a network
of relationships between combination and selection, similarity and difference.
Meaning cannot be accounted for by reference to an extra-linguistic reality. As Saussure
(1974) insists, ‘in language there are only differences without positive terms ...
[L]anguage has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but
only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system’ (120). We
might want to query this assumption by noting that Inuits name the snowscape differ-
ently because of the material bearing it has on their day-to-day existence. It could also
be objected that substituting ‘terrorists’ for ‘freedom fighters’ produces meanings not
accounted for purely by linguistics (see Chapter 4).
Saussure makes another distinction that has proved essential to the development of
structuralism. This is the division of language into langue and parole. Langue refers to
the system of language, the rules and conventions that organize it. This is language as
a social institution, and as Roland Barthes (1967) points out, ‘it is essentially a collec-
tive contract which one must accept in its entirety if one wishes to communicate’ (14).
Parole refers to the individual utterance, the individual use of language. To clarify this
point, Saussure compares language to the game of chess. Here we can distinguish
between the rules of the game and an actual game of chess. Without the body of rules
there could be no actual game, but it is only in an actual game that these rules are made
manifest. Therefore, there is langue and parole,structure and performance. It is the
homogeneity of the structure that makes the heterogeneity of the performance possible.
Finally, Saussure distinguishes between two theoretical approaches to linguistics.
The diachronic approach which studies the historical development of a given language,
and the synchronic approach which studies a given language in one particular moment
in time. He argues that in order to found a science of linguistics it is necessary to adopt
a synchronic approach. Structuralists have, generally speaking, taken the synchronic
approach to the study of texts or practices. They argue that in order to really understand
a text or practice it is necessary to focus exclusively on its structural properties. This of
course allows critics hostile to structuralism to criticize it for its ahistorical approach to
culture.
Structuralism takes two basic ideas from Saussure’s work. First, a concern with the
underlying relations of texts and practices, the ‘grammar’ that makes meaning possible.
Second, the view that meaning is always the result of the interplay of relationships of
selection and combination made possible by the underlying structure. In other words,
texts and practices are studied as analogous to language. Imagine, for example, that
aliens from outer space had landed in Barcelona in May 1999, and as an earthly dis-
play of welcome they were invited to attend the Champions League Final between