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118 Chapter 6 Structuralism and post-structuralism

and $122.5 million in the first year of release in the UK and USA respectively), it may
well (if we accept Wright’s rather reductive correspondence theory) represent a
‘transition theme’ Western that marks the beginning of a reverse transition, back to a
time of less mercenary social and community values – back in fact to a time of society
and community.

Roland Barthes: Mythologies

Roland Barthes’s early work on popular culture is concerned with the processes of
signification, the mechanisms by which meanings are produced and put into circula-
tion. Mythologies (1973) is a collection of essays on French popular culture. In it he dis-
cusses, among many things, wrestling, soap powders and detergents, toys, steak and
chips, tourism and popular attitudes towards science. His guiding principle is always
to interrogate ‘the falsely obvious’ (11), to make explicit what too often remains
implicit in the texts and practices of popular culture. His purpose is political; his target
is what he calls the ‘bourgeois norm’ (9). As he states in the ‘Preface’ to the 1957 edi-
tion, ‘I resented seeing Nature and History confused at every turn, and I wanted to track
down, in the decorative display of what-goes-without-saying,the ideological abuse
which, in my view, is hidden there’ (11). Mythologies is the most significant attempt to
bring the methodology of semiology to bear on popular culture. The possibility of
semiology was first posited by Saussure (1974):

Language is a system of signs that express ideas, and is therefore comparable to
a system of writing, the alphabet of deaf mutes, symbolic rites, polite formulas,
military signals, etc. ...A science that studies the life of signs within society is
conceivable ...I shall call it semiology (16).

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Mythologies concludes with the important theoretical essay, ‘Myth today’. In the essay
Barthes outlines a semiological model for reading popular culture. He takes Saussure’s
schema of signifier/signified = sign and adds to it a second level of signification.
As we noted earlier, the signifier ‘dog’ produces the signified ‘dog’: a four-legged
canine creature. Barthes argues that this indicates only primary signification. The sign
‘dog’ produced at the primary level of signification is available to become the signifier
‘dog’ at a second level of signification. This may then produce at the secondary level the
signified ‘dog’: an unpleasant human being. As illustrated in Table 6.3, the sign of pri-
mary signification becomes the signifier in a process of secondary signification. In
Elements of Semiology,Barthes (1967) substitutes the more familiar terms ‘denotation’
(primary signification) and ‘connotation’ (secondary signification): ‘the first system
[denotation] becomes the plane of expression or signifier of the second system [con-
notation]. ...The signifiers of connotation ...are made up of signs (signifiers and
signifieds united) of the denoted system’ (89–91).