Page 210 - Discrimination at Work The Psychological and Organizational Bases

8. UNDERSTANDING HETEROSEXISM
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Recognizing these limitations, researchers began to define sexual ori­
entation more precisely (Coleman, 1987; Garnets & Kimmel, 1993). Three
main distinctions emerged. First, instead of viewing sexual orientation as a
single dimension, sexual orientation was viewed as falling along two con­
tinuous scales of homosexuality and heterosexuality. This view allowed
for a more accurate assessment of bisexuals (i.e., those with high scores
on both the heterosexual and homosexual dimensions) and also addressed
the construct of asexuality (i.e., those with low scores on both dimensions.)
Second, a distinction was made between behavioral preference, based on
physical actions, and affectional preference, based on feelings and emo­
tions (Shively & DeCecco, 1977). This distinction allowed for the scenario
in which an individual is physically attracted to one sex, but emotionally
attracted to another. Third, sexual identity was conceptualized as involving
four factors: (a) biological sex; (b) gender identity, which is the individual's
sense of being male or female; (c) social sex role, which involves the display
of characteristics that are culturally stereotyped as masculine or feminine,
and (d) sexual orientation, which involves both behavioral and affectional
dimensions. These four components may not be congruent. For example,
a biological woman with a male gender identity may be in a same-gender
relationship but self-identity as heterosexual because of her gender iden­
tity.

Heterosexism and Homophobia

Heterosexuals' negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians have been
given a number of different names. In 1972, Weinberg coined the phrase
homophobia to describe the dread of being in close quarters with gay men
(Weinberg, 1972). Although this term was intended to capture the per­
sonal discomfort and fear, often at phobic levels, that some heterosexuals
feel when associating with gay men and lesbians (Herek, 1984), it is often
inappropriately used to describe all negative attitudes toward lesbians and
gay men (Logan, 1996). Phobic reactions include emotional responses of
anger and anxiety that are not typically present in prejudice toward les­
bians and gays (Berkman & Zinberg, 1997). Indeed, overusing the term
homophobia, as is done when all prejudice toward lesbians and gays is
described in this manner, may be counterproductive in that true cases of
homophobia could be left untreated (Haaga, 1991).
Research suggests that most prejudiced reactions to lesbians and gays
are best conceived of as just that—prejudice—rather than phobias (Logan,
1996). A more appropriate term to describe negative attitudes toward gays
and lesbians is heterosexism. This term reflects the belief that heterosexu­
ality is the only legitimate sexual orientation, such that alternatives to it