Page 110 - From Smart Grid to Internet of Energy

Smart metering and smart monitoring systems Chapter 2 95

substations and transformers, on-line tap-changers (OLTCs), temperature
changes and ESSs. In addition to direct measurement, several calculations
for active and reactive power, power factor, total harmonic distortion (THD)
rates, and frequency can be performed regarding to measurement data.
The monitoring architectures can be classified as local, substation, and cen-
tralized according to sensing and analysis operations. The local monitoring and
data processing requirements are met by smart sensors that is a specified stan-
dalone device with embedded measurement and communication capability. It is
widely used for transformer monitoring, feeder and asset current measurements,
and fault passage indicators (FPIs). These types of applications are mostly seen
in SCADA systems for acquiring fault detection and warning purposes. The
substation monitoring requires distributed smart sensors to acquire data from
outside of substation. The sensors are hierarchically located and interacts with
gateways. A substation controlling server is responsible for managing gate-
ways in this monitoring structure. The centralized or central monitoring is used
for system-wide monitoring as its name implies. The monitoring data are
acquired from field sensors and stored in a central database for real time and
historical monitoring requirements. The central database provides required data
to asset management, diagnostic applications, and real time management
applications [25].

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